C++ Object Persistence with ODB

Copyright © 2009-2011 Code Synthesis Tools CC

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, version 1.3; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts and no Back-Cover Texts.

Revision 1.5, July 2011

This revision of the manual describes ODB 1.5.0 and is available in the following formats: XHTML, PDF, and PostScript.

# Table of Contents

# Preface

As more critical aspects of our lives become dependant on software systems, more and more applications are required to save the data they work on in persistent and reliable storage. Database management systems and, in particular, relational database management systems (RDBMS) are commonly used for such storage. However, while the application development techniques and programming languages have evolved significantly over the past decades, the relational database technology in this area stayed relatively unchanged. In particular, this led to the now infamous mismatch between the object-oriented model used by many modern applications and the relational model still used by RDBMS.

While relational databases may be inconvenient to use from modern programming languages, they are still the main choice for many applications due to their maturity, reliability, as well as the availability of tools and alternative implementations.

To allow application developers to utilize relational databases from their object-oriented applications, a technique called object-relational mapping (ORM) is often used. It involves a conversion layer that maps between objects in the application's memory and their relational representation in the database. While the object-relational mapping code can be written manually, automated ORM systems are available for most object-oriented programming languages in use today.

ODB is an ORM system for the C++ programming language. It was designed and implemented with the following main goals:

- Provide a fully-automatic ORM system. In particular, the application developer should not have to manually write any mapping code, neither for persistent classes nor for their data member.
- Provide clean and easy to use object-oriented persistence model and database APIs that support the development of realistic applications for a wide variety of domains.
- Provide a portable and thread-safe implementation. ODB should be written in standard C++ and capable of persisting any standard C++ classes.
- Provide profiles that integrate ODB with type systems of widely-used frameworks and libraries such as Qt and Boost.
- Provide a high-performance and low overhead implementation. ODB should make efficient use of database and application resources.

## About This Document

The goal of this manual is to provide you with an understanding of the object persistence model and APIs which are implemented by ODB. As such, this document is intended for C++ application developers and software architects who are looking for a C++ object persistence solution. Prior experience with C++ is required to understand this document. A basic understanding of relational database systems is advantageous but not expected or required.

## More Information

Beyond this manual, you may also find the following sources of information useful:

- ODB Compiler Command Line Manual.
- The `INSTALL` files in the ODB source packages provide build instructions for various platforms.
- The `odb-examples` package contains a collection of examples and a README file with an overview of each example.
- The odb-users mailing list is the place to ask technical questions about ODB. Furthermore, the searchable archives may already have answers to some of your questions.

# PART I OBJECT-RELATIONAL MAPPING

Part I describes the essential database concepts, APIs, and tools that together comprise the object-relational mapping for C++ as implemented by ODB. It consists of the following chapters.

# 1 Introduction

ODB is an object-relational mapping (ORM) system for C++. It provides tools, APIs, and library support that allow you to persist C++ objects to a relational database (RDBMS) without having to deal with tables, columns, or SQL and without manually writing any of the mapping code.

ODB is highly flexible and customizable. It can either completely hide the relational nature of the underlying database or expose some of the details as required. For example, you can automatically map basic C++ types to suitable SQL types, generate the relational database schema for your persistent classes, and use simple, safe, and yet powerful object query language instead of SQL. Or you can assign SQL types to individual data members, use the existing database schema, and run native SQL `SELECT` queries.

ODB is not a framework. It does not dictate how you should write your application. Rather, it is designed to fit into your style and architecture by only handling object persistence and not interfering with any other functionality. There is no common base type that all persistent classes should derive from nor are there any restrictions on the data member types in persistent classes. Existing classes can be made persistent with a few or no modifications.

ODB has been designed for high performance and low memory overhead. Prepared statements are used to send and receive object state in binary format instead of text which reduces the load on the application and the database server. Extensive caching of connections, prepared statements, and buffers saves time and resources on connection establishment, statement parsing and memory allocations. For each supported database system the native C API is used instead of ODBC or higher-level wrapper APIs to reduce overhead and provide the most efficient implementation for each database operation. Finally, persistent classes have zero memory overhead. There are no hidden "database" members that each class must have nor are there per-object data structures allocated by ODB.

In this chapter we present a high-level overview of ODB. We will start with the ODB architecture and then outline the workflow of building an application that uses ODB. We will conclude the chapter by contrasting the drawbacks of the traditional way of saving C++ objects to relational databases with the benefits of using ODB for object persistence. The next chapter takes a more hands-on approach and shows the concrete steps necessary to implement object persistence in a simple "Hello World" application.

## 1.1 Architecture and Workflow

From the application developer's perspective, ODB consists of three main components: the ODB compiler, the common runtime library, called `libodb`, and the database-specific runtime libraries, called `libodb-<database>`, where <database> is the name of the database system this runtime is for, for example, `libodb-mysql`. For instance, if the application is going to use the MySQL database for object persistence, then the three ODB components that this application will use are the ODB compiler, `libodb` and `libodb-mysql`.

The ODB compiler generates the database support code for persistent classes in your application. The input to the ODB compiler is one or more C++ header files defining C++ classes that you want to make persistent. For each input header file the ODB compiler generates a set of C++ source files implementing conversion between persistent C++ classes defined in this header and their database representation. The ODB compiler can also generate a database schema file that creates tables necessary to store the persistent classes.

The ODB compiler is a real C++ compiler except that it produces C++ instead of assembly or machine code. In particular, it is not an ad-hoc header pre-processor that is only capable of recognizing a subset of C++. ODB is capable of parsing any standard C++ code.

The common runtime library defines database system-independent interfaces that your application can use to manipulate persistent objects. The database-specific runtime library provides implementations of these interfaces for a concrete database as well as other database-specific utilities that are used by the generated code. Normally, the application does not use the database-specific runtime library directly but rather works with it via the common interfaces from `libodb`. The following diagram shows the object persistence architecture of an application that uses MySQL as the underlying database system:

The ODB system also defines two special-purpose languages: the ODB Pragma Language and ODB Query Language. The ODB Pragma Language is used to communicate various properties of persistent classes to the ODB compiler by means of special `#pragma` directives embedded in the C++ header files. It controls aspects of the object-relational mapping such as names of tables and columns that are used for persistent classes and their members or mapping between C++ types and database types.

The ODB Query Language is an object-oriented database query language that can be used to search for objects matching certain criteria. It is modeled after and is integrated into C++ allowing you to write expressive and safe queries that look and feel like ordinary C++.

The use of the ODB compiler to generate database support code adds an additional step to your application build sequence. The following diagram outlines the typical build workflow of an application that uses ODB:

## 1.2 Benefits

The traditional way of saving C++ objects to relational databases requires that you manually write code which converts between the database and C++ representations of each persistent class. The actions that such code usually performs include conversion between C++ values and strings or database types, preparation and execution of SQL queries, as well as handling the result sets. Writing this code manually has the following drawbacks:

- Difficult and time consuming. Writing database conversion code for any non-trivial application requires extensive knowledge of the specific database system and its APIs. It can also take a considerable amount of time to write and maintain. Supporting multi-threaded applications can complicate this task even further.
- Suboptimal performance. Optimal conversion often requires writing large amounts of extra code, such as parameter binding for prepared statements and caching of connections, statements, and buffers. Writing code like this in an ad-hoc manner is often too difficult and time consuming.
- Database vendor lock-in. The conversion code is written for a specific database which makes it hard to switch to another database vendor.
- Lack of type safety. It is easy to misspell column names or pass incompatible values in SQL queries. Such errors will only be detected at runtime.
- Complicates the application. The database conversion code often ends up interspersed throughout the application making it hard to debug, change, and maintain.

In contrast, using ODB for C++ object persistence has the following benefits:

- Ease of use. ODB automatically generates database conversion code from your C++ class declarations and allows you to manipulate persistent objects using simple and thread-safe object-oriented database APIs.
- Concise code. With ODB hiding the details of the underlying database, the application logic is written using the natural object vocabulary instead of tables, columns and SQL. The resulting code is simpler and thus easier to read and understand.
- Optimal performance. ODB has been designed for high performance and low memory overhead. All the available optimization techniques, such as prepared statements and extensive connection, statement, and buffer caching, are used to provide the most efficient implementation for each database operation.
- Database portability. Because the database conversion code is automatically generated, it is easy to switch from one database vendor to another. In fact, it is possible to test your application on several database systems before making a choice.
- Safety. The ODB object persistence and query APIs are statically typed. You use C++ identifiers instead of strings to refer to object members and the generated code makes sure database and C++ types are compatible. All this helps catch programming errors at compile-time rather than at runtime.
- Maintainability. Automatic code generation minimizes the effort needed to adapt the application to changes in persistent classes. The database support code is kept separately from the class declarations and application logic. This makes the application easier to debug and maintain.

Overall, ODB provides an easy to use yet flexible and powerful object-relational mapping (ORM) system for C++. Unlike other ORM implementations for C++ that still require you to write database conversion or member registration code for each persistent class, ODB keeps persistent classes purely declarative. The functional part, the database conversion code, is automatically generated by the ODB compiler from these declarations.

# 2 Hello World Example

In this chapter we will show how to create a simple C++ application that relies on ODB for object persistence using the traditional "Hello World" example. In particular, we will discuss how to declare persistent classes, generate database support code, as well as compile and run our application. We will also learn how to make objects persistent, load, update and delete persistent objects, as well as query the database for persistent objects that match certain criteria.

The code presented in this chapter is based on the `hello` example which can be found in the `odb-examples` package of the ODB distribution.

## 2.1 Declaring a Persistent Class

In our "Hello World" example we will depart slightly from the norm and say hello to people instead of the world. People in our application will be represented as objects of C++ class `person` which is saved in `person.hxx`:

    // person.hxx
    //

    #include <string>

    class person
    {
    public:
      person (const std::string& first,
              const std::string& last,
              unsigned short age);

      const std::string&
      first () const;

      const std::string&
      last () const;

      unsigned short
      age () const;

      void
      age (unsigned short);

    private:
      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
      unsigned short age_;
    };

In order not to miss anyone whom we need to greet, we would like to save the `person` objects in a database. To achieve this we declare the `person` class as persistent:

    // person.hxx
    //

    #include <string>

    #include <odb/core.hxx>     // (1)

    #pragma db object           // (2)
    class person
    {
      ...

    private:
      person () {}              // (3)

      friend class odb::access; // (4)

      #pragma db id auto        // (5)
      unsigned long id_;        // (5)

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
      unsigned short age_;
    };

To be able to save the `person` objects in the database we had to make five changes, marked with (1) to (5), to the original class definition. The first change is the inclusion of the ODB header `<odb/core.hxx>`. This header provides a number of core ODB declarations, such as `odb::access`, that are used to define persistent classes.

The second change is the addition of `db object` pragma just before the class definition. This pragma tells the ODB compiler that the class that follows is persistent. Note that making a class persistent does not mean that all objects of this class will automatically be stored in the database. You would still create ordinary or transient instances of this class just as you would before. The difference is that now you can make such transient instances persistent, as we will see shortly.

The third change is the addition of the default constructor. The ODB-generated database support code will use this constructor when instantiating an object from the persistent state. Just as we have done for the `person` class, you can make the default constructor private or protected if you don't want to make it available to the users of your class.

With the fourth change we make the `odb::access` class a friend of our `person` class. This is necessary to make the default constructor and the data members accessible to the ODB support code. If your class has public default constructor and public data members, then the `friend` declaration is unnecessary.

The final change adds a data member called `id_` which is preceded by another pragma. In ODB every persistent object must have a unique, within its class, identifier. Or, in other words, no two persistent instances of the same type have equal identifiers. For our class we use an integer id. The `db id auto` pragma that precedes the `id_` member tells the ODB compiler that the following member is the object's identifier. The `auto` specifier indicates that it is a database-assigned id. A unique id will be automatically generated by the database and assigned to the object when it is made persistent.

In this example we chose to add an identifier because none of the existing members could serve the same purpose. However, if a class already has a member with suitable properties, then it is natural to use that member as an identifier. For example, if our `person` class contained some form of personal identification (SSN in the United States or ID/passport number in other countries), then we could use that as an id. Or, if we stored an email associated with each person, then we could have used that since each person is presumed to have a unique email address, for example:

    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string email_;

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
      unsigned short age_;
    };

Now that we have the header file with the persistent class, let's see how we can generate that database support code.

## 2.2 Generating Database Support Code

The persistent class definition that we created in the previous section was particularly light on any code that could actually do the job and store the person's data to a database. There was no serialization or deserialization code, not even data member registration, that you would normally have to write by hand in other ORM libraries for C++. This is because in ODB code that translates between the database and C++ representations of an object is automatically generated by the ODB compiler.

To compile the `person.hxx` header we created in the previous section and generate the support code for the MySQL database, we invoke the ODB compiler from a terminal (UNIX) or a command prompt (Windows):

    odb -d mysql --generate-query person.hxx

We will use MySQL as the database of choice in the remainder of this chapter, though other supported database systems can be used instead.

If you haven't installed the common ODB runtime library (`libodb`) or installed it into a directory where C++ compilers don't search for headers by default, then you may get the following error:

    person.hxx:10:24: fatal error: odb/core.hxx: No such file or directory

To resolve this you will need to specify the `libodb` headers location with the `-I` preprocessor option, for example:

    odb -I.../libodb -d mysql --generate-query person.hxx

Here `.../libodb` represents the path to the `libodb` directory.

The above invocation of the ODB compiler produces three C++ files: `person-odb.hxx`, `person-odb.ixx`, `person-odb.cxx`. You normally don't use types or functions contained in these files directly. Rather, all you have to do is include `person-odb.hxx` in C++ files where you are performing database operations with classes from `person.hxx` as well as compile `person-odb.cxx` and link the resulting object file to your application.

You may be wondering what the `--generate-query` option is for. It instructs the ODB compiler to generate optional query support code that we will use later in our "Hello World" example. Another option that we will find useful is `--generate-schema`. This option makes the ODB compiler generate a fourth file, `person.sql`, which is the database schema for the persistent classes defined in `person.hxx`:

    odb -d mysql --generate-query --generate-schema person.hxx

The database schema file contains SQL statements that creates tables necessary to store the persistent classes. We will learn how to use it in the next section.

If you would like to see a list of all the available ODB compiler options, refer to the ODB Compiler Command Line Manual.

Now that we have the persistent class and the database support code, the only part that is left is the application code that does something useful with all of this. But before we move on to the fun part, let's first learn how to build and run an application that uses ODB. This way when we have some application code to try, there are no more delays before we can run it.

## 2.3 Compiling and Running

Assuming that the `main()` function with the application code is saved in `driver.cxx` and the database support code and schema are generated as described in the previous section, to build our application we will first need to compile all the C++ source files and then link them with two ODB runtime libraries.

On UNIX, the compilation part can be done with the following commands (substitute `c++` with your C++ compiler name; for Microsoft Visual Studio setup, see the `odb-examples` package):

    c++ -c driver.cxx
    c++ -c person-odb.cxx

Similar to the ODB compilation, if you get an error stating that a header in `odb/` or `odb/mysql` directory is not found, you will need to use the `-I` preprocessor option to specify the location of the common ODB runtime library (`libodb`) and MySQL ODB runtime library (`libodb-mysql`).

Once the compilation is done, we can link the application with the following command:

    c++ -o driver driver.o person-odb.o -lodb-mysql -lodb

Notice that we link our application with two ODB libraries: `libodb` which is a common runtime library and `libodb-mysql` which is a MySQL runtime library (if you use another database, then the name of this library will change accordingly). If you get an error saying that one of these libraries could not be found, then you will need to use the `-L` linker option to specify their locations.

Before we can run our application we need to create a database schema using the generated `person.sql` file. For MySQL we can use the `mysql` client program, for example:

    mysql --user=odb_test --database=odb_test < person.sql

The above command will log in to a local MySQL server as user `odb_test` without a password and use the database named `odb_test`. Beware that after executing this command, all the data stored in the `odb_test` database will be deleted.

Note also that using a standalone generated SQL file is not the only way to create a database schema in ODB. We can also embed the schema directly into our application or use custom schemas that were not generated by the ODB compiler. Refer to Section 3.3, "Database" for details.

Once the database schema is ready, we run our application using the same login and database name:

    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

## 2.4 Making Objects Persistent

Now that we have the infrastructure work out of the way, it is time to see our first code fragment that interacts with the database. In this section we will learn how to make `person` objects persistent:

    // driver.cxx
    //

    #include <memory>   // std::auto_ptr
    #include <iostream>

    #include <odb/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/transaction.hxx>

    #include <odb/mysql/database.hxx>

    #include "person.hxx"
    #include "person-odb.hxx"

    using namespace std;
    using namespace odb::core;

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      try
      {
        auto_ptr<database> db (new odb::mysql::database (argc, argv));

        unsigned long john_id, jane_id, joe_id;

        // Create a few persistent person objects.
        //
        {
          person john ("John", "Doe", 33);
          person jane ("Jane", "Doe", 32);
          person joe ("Joe", "Dirt", 30);

          transaction t (db->begin ());

          // Make objects persistent and save their ids for later use.
          //
          john_id = db->persist (john);
          jane_id = db->persist (jane);
          joe_id = db->persist (joe);

          t.commit ();
        }
      }
      catch (const odb::exception& e)
      {
        cerr << e.what () << endl;
        return 1;
      }
    }

Let's examine this code piece by piece. At the beginning we include a bunch of headers. After the standard C++ headers we include `<odb/database.hxx>` and `<odb/transaction.hxx>` which define database system-independent `odb::database` and `odb::transaction` interfaces. Then we include `<odb/mysql/database.hxx>` which defines the MySQL implementation of the `database` interface. Finally, we include `person.hxx` and `person-odb.hxx` which define our persistent `person` class.

Then we have two `using namespace` directives. The first one brings in the names from the standard namespace and the second brings in the ODB declarations which we will use later in the file. Notice that in the second directive we use the `odb::core` namespace instead of just `odb`. The former only brings into the current namespace the essential ODB names, such as the `database` and `transaction` classes, without any of the auxiliary objects. This minimizes the likelihood of name conflicts with other libraries. Note also that you should continue using the `odb` namespace when qualifying individual names. For example, you should write `odb::database`, not `odb::core::database`.

Once we are in `main()`, the first thing we do is create the MySQL database object. Notice that this is the last line in `driver.cxx` that mentions MySQL explicitly; the rest of the code works through the common interfaces and is database system-independent. We use the `argc`/`argv` `mysql::database` constructor which automatically extract the database parameters, such as login name, password, database name, etc., from the command line. In your own applications you may prefer to use other `mysql::database` constructors which allow you to pass this information directly (Section 11.2, "MySQL Database Class").

Next, we create three `person` objects. Right now they are transient objects, which means that if we terminate the application at this point, they will be gone without any evidence of them ever existing. The next line starts a database transaction. We discuss transactions in detail later in this manual. For now, all we need to know is that all ODB database operations must be performed within a transaction and that a transaction is an atomic unit of work; all database operations performed within a transaction either succeed (committed) together or are automatically undone (rolled back).

Once we are in a transaction, we call the `persist()` database function on each of our `person` objects. At this point the state of each object is saved in the database. However, note that this state is not permanent until and unless the transaction is committed. If, for example, our application crashes at this point, there will still be no evidence of our objects ever existing.

In our case, one more thing happens when we call `persist()`. Remember that we decided to use database-assigned identifiers for our `person` objects. The call to `persist()` is where this assignment happens. Once this function returns, the `id_` member contains this object's unique identifier. As a convenience, the `persist()` function also returns a copy of the object's identifier that it made persistent. We save the returned identifier for each object in a local variable. We will use these identifiers later in the chapter to perform other database operations on our persistent objects.

After we have persisted our objects, it is time to commit the transaction and make the changes permanent. Only after the `commit()` function returns successfully, are we guaranteed that the objects are made persistent. Continuing with the crash example, if our application terminates after the commit for whatever reason, the objects' state in the database will remain intact. In fact, as we will discover shortly, our application can be restarted and load the original objects from the database. Note also that a transaction must be committed explicitly with the `commit()` call. If the `transaction` object leaves scope without the transaction being explicitly committed or rolled back, it will automatically be rolled back. This behavior allows you not to worry about exceptions being thrown within a transaction; if they cross the transaction boundary, the transaction will automatically be rolled back and all the changes made to the database undone.

The final bit of code in our example is the `catch` block that handles the database exceptions. We do this by catching the base ODB exception (Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions") and printing the diagnostics.

Let's now compile (Section 2.3, "Compiling and Running") and then run our first ODB application:

    mysql --user=odb_test --database=odb_test < person.sql
    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

Our first application doesn't print anything except for error messages so we can't really tell whether it actually stored the objects' state in the database. While we will make our application more entertaining shortly, for now we can use the `mysql` client to examine the database content. It will also give us a feel for how the objects are stored:

    mysql --user=odb_test --database=odb_test

    Welcome to the MySQL monitor.

    mysql> select * from person;

    +----+-------+------+-----+
    | id | first | last | age |
    +----+-------+------+-----+
    |  1 | John  | Doe  |  33 |
    |  2 | Jane  | Doe  |  32 |
    |  3 | Joe   | Dirt |  30 |
    +----+-------+------+-----+
    3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

    mysql> quit

In the next section we will see how to access persistent objects from our application.

## 2.5 Querying the Database for Objects

So far our application doesn't resemble a typical "Hello World" example. It doesn't print anything except for error messages. Let's change that and teach our application to say hello to people from our database. To make it a bit more interesting, let's say hello only to people over 30:

    // driver.cxx
    //

    ...

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      try
      {
        ...

        // Create a few persistent person objects.
        //
        {
          ...
        }

        typedef odb::query<person> query;
        typedef odb::result<person> result;

        // Say hello to those over 30.
        //
        {
          transaction t (db->begin ());

          result r (db->query<person> (query::age > 30));

          for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end (); ++i)
          {
            cout << "Hello, " << i->first () << "!" << endl;
          }

          t.commit ();
        }
      }
      catch (const odb::exception& e)
      {
        cerr << e.what () << endl;
        return 1;
      }
    }

The first half of our application is the same as before and is replaced with "..." in the above listing for brevity. Again, let's examine the rest of it piece by piece.

The two `typedef`s create convenient aliases for two template instantiations that will be used a lot in our application. The first is the query type for the `person` objects and the second is the result type for that query.

Then we begin a new transaction and call the `query()` database function. We pass a query expression (`query::age > 30`) which limits the returned objects only to those with the age greater than 30. We also save the result of the query in a local variable.

The next few lines perform a standard for-loop iteration over the result sequence printing hello for every returned person. Then we commit the transaction and that's it. Let's see what this application will print:

    mysql --user=odb_test --database=odb_test < person.sql
    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

    Hello, John!
    Hello, Jane!

That looks about right, but how do we know that the query actually used the database instead of just using some in-memory artifacts of the earlier `persist()` calls? One way to test this would be to comment out the first transaction in our application and re-run it without re-creating the database schema. This way the objects that were persisted during the previous run will be returned. Alternatively, we can just re-run the same application without re-creating the schema and notice that we now show duplicate objects:

    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

    Hello, John!
    Hello, Jane!
    Hello, John!
    Hello, Jane!

What happens here is that the previous run of our application persisted a set of `person` objects and when we re-run the application, we persist another set with the same names but with different ids. When we later run the query, matches from both sets are returned. We can change the line where we print the "Hello" string as follows to illustrate this point:

    cout << "Hello, " << i->first () << " (" << i->id () << ")!" << endl;

If we now re-run this modified program, again without re-creating the database schema, we will get the following output:

    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

    Hello, John (1)!
    Hello, Jane (2)!
    Hello, John (4)!
    Hello, Jane (5)!
    Hello, John (7)!
    Hello, Jane (8)!

The identifiers 3, 6, and 9 that are missing from the above list belong to the "Joe Dirt" objects which are not selected by this query.

## 2.6 Updating Persistent Objects

While making objects persistent and then selecting some of them using queries are two useful operations, most applications will also need to change the object's state and then make these changes persistent. Let's illustrate this by updating Joe's age who just had a birthday:

    // driver.cxx
    //

    ...

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      try
      {
        ...

        unsigned long john_id, jane_id, joe_id;

        // Create a few persistent person objects.
        //
        {
          ...

          // Save object ids for later use.
          //
          john_id = john.id ();
          jane_id = jane.id ();
          joe_id = joe.id ();
        }

        // Joe Dirt just had a birthday, so update his age.
        //
        {
          transaction t (db->begin ());

          auto_ptr<person> joe (db->load<person> (joe_id));
          joe->age (joe->age () + 1);
          db->update (*joe);

          t.commit ();
        }

        // Say hello to those over 30.
        //
        {
          ...
        }
      }
      catch (const odb::exception& e)
      {
        cerr << e.what () << endl;
        return 1;
      }
    }

The beginning and the end of the new transaction are the same as the previous two. Once within a transaction, we call the `load()` database function to instantiate a `person` object with Joe's persistent state. We pass Joe's object identifier that we stored earlier when we made this object persistent. While here we use `std::auto_ptr` to manage the returned object, we could have also used another smart pointer, for example `shared_ptr` from TR1 or Boost. For more information on the object lifetime management and the smart pointers that we can use for that, see Section 3.2, "Object Pointers".

With the instantiated object in hand we increment the age and call the `update()` function to update the object's state in the database. Once the transaction is committed, the changes are made permanent.

If we now run this application, we will see Joe in the output since he is now over 30:

    mysql --user=odb_test --database=odb_test < person.sql
    ./driver --user odb_test --database odb_test

    Hello, John!
    Hello, Jane!
    Hello, Joe!

What if we didn't have an identifier for Joe? Maybe this object was made persistent in another run of our application or by another application altogether. Provided that we only have one Joe Dirt in the database, we can use the query facility to come up with an alternative implementation of the above transaction:

        // Joe Dirt just had a birthday, so update his age. An
        // alternative implementation without using the object id.
        //
        {
          transaction t (db->begin ());

          result r (db->query<person> (query::first == "Joe" &&
                                       query::last == "Dirt"));

          result::iterator i (r.begin ());

          if (i != r.end ())
          {
            auto_ptr<person> joe (i.load ());
            joe->age (joe->age () + 1);
            db->update (*joe);
          }

          t.commit ();
        }

## 2.7 Deleting Persistent Objects

The last operation that we will discuss in this chapter is deleting the persistent object from the database. The following code fragment shows how we can delete an object given its identifier:

        // John Doe is no longer in our database.
        //
        {
          transaction t (db->begin ());
          db->erase<person> (john_id);
          t.commit ();
        }

To delete John from the database we start a transaction, call the `erase()` database function with John's object id, and commit the transaction. After the transaction is committed, the erased object is no longer persistent.

If we don't have an object id handy, we can use queries to find and delete the object:

        // John Doe is no longer in our database. An alternative
        // implementation without using the object id.
        //
        {
          transaction t (db->begin ());

          result r (db->query<person> (query::first == "John" &&
                                       query::last == "Doe"));

          result::iterator i (r.begin ());

          if (i != r.end ())
          {
            auto_ptr<person> john (i.load ());
            db->erase (*john);
          }

          t.commit ();
        }

## 2.8 Summary

This chapter presented a very simple application which, nevertheless, exercised all of the core database functions: `persist()`, `query()`, `load()`, `update()`, and `erase()`. We also saw that writing an application that uses ODB involves the following steps:

1. Declare persistent classes in header files.
2. Compile these headers to generate database support code.
3. Link the application with the generated code and two ODB runtime libraries.

Do not be concerned if, at this point, much appears unclear. The intent of this chapter is to give you only a general idea of how to persist C++ objects with ODB. We will cover all the details throughout the remainder of this manual.

# 3 Working with Persistent Objects

The previous chapters gave us a high-level overview of ODB and showed how to use it to store C++ objects in a database. In this chapter we will examine the ODB object persistence model as well as the core database APIs in greater detail. We will start with basic concepts and terminology in Section 3.1 and continue with the discussion of the `odb::database` class in Section 3.3 and transactions in Section 3.4. The remainder of this chapter deals with the core database operations and concludes with the discussion of ODB exceptions.

In this chapter we will continue to use and expand the `person` persistent class that we have developed in the previous chapter.

## 3.1 Concepts and Terminology

The term database can refer to three distinct things: a general notion of a place where an application stores its data, a software implementation for managing this data (for example MySQL), and, finally, some database software implementations may manage several data stores which are usually distinguished by name. This name is also commonly referred to as a database.

In this manual, when we use the word database, we refer to the first meaning above, for example, "The `update()` function saves the object's state to the database." The term Database Management System (DBMS) is often used to refer to the second meaning of the word database. In this manual we will use the term database system for short, for example, "Database system-independent application code." Finally, to distinguish the third meaning from the other two, we will use the term database name, for example, "The second option specifies the database name that the application should use to store its data."

In C++ there is only one notion of a type and an instance of a type. For example, a fundamental type, such as `int`, is, for the most part, treated the same as a user defined class type. However, when it comes to persistence, we have to place certain restrictions and requirements on certain C++ types that can be stored in the database. As a result, we divide persistent C++ types into two groups: object types and value types. An instance of an object type is called an object and an instance of a value type — a value.

An object is an independent entity. It can be stored, updated, and deleted in the database independent of other objects. An object has an identifier, called object id, that is unique among all instances of an object type within a database. In contrast, a value can only be stored in the database as part of an object and doesn't have its own unique identifier.

An object consists of data members which are either values, pointers to other objects (Chapter 6, "Relationships"), or containers of values or pointers to other objects (Chapter 5, "Containers"). Pointers to other objects and containers can be viewed as special kinds of values since they also can only be stored in the database as part of an object.

An object type is a C++ class. Because of this one-to-one relationship, we will use terms object type and object class interchangeably. In contrast, a value type can be a fundamental C++ type, such as `int` or a class type, such as `std::string`. If a value consists of other values, then it is called a composite value and its type — a composite value type. Otherwise, the value is called simple value and its type — a simple value type. Note that the distinction between simple and composite values is conceptual rather than representational. For example, `std::string` is a simple value type because conceptually string is a single value even though the representation of the string class may contain several data members each of which could be considered a value. In fact, the same value type can be viewed (and mapped) as both simple and composite by different applications.

Understanding how all these concepts map to the relational model will hopefully make these distinctions clearer. In a relational database an object type is mapped to a table and a value type is mapped to one or more columns. A simple value type is mapped to a single column while a composite value type is mapped to several columns. An object is stored as a row in this table and a value is stored as one or more cells in this row. A simple value is stored in a single cell while a composite value occupies several cells.

Going back to the distinction between simple and composite values, consider a date type which has three integer members: year, month, and day. In one application it can be considered a composite value and each member will get its own column in a relational database. In another application it can be considered a simple value and stored in a single column as a number of days from some predefined date.

Until now, we have been using the term persistent class to refer to object classes. We will continue to do so even though a value type can also be a class. The reason for this asymmetry is the subordinate nature of value types when it comes to database operations. Remember that values are never stored directly but rather as part of an object that contains them. As a result, when we say that we want to make a C++ class persistent or persist an instance of a class in the database, we invariably refer to an object class rather than a value class.

To make a C++ class a persistent object class we declare it as such using the `db object` pragma, for example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

The other pragma that we often use is `db id` which designates one of the data members as an object id, for example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;
    };

These two pragmas are the minimum required to declare a persistent class. Other pragmas can be used to fine-tune the database-related properties of a class and its members (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language").

Normally, an object class should define the default constructor. The generated database support code uses this constructor when instantiating an object from the persistent state. If we add the default constructor only for the database support code, then we can make it private. It is also possible to have an object type without the default constructor. However, in this case, the database operations can only load the persistent state into an existing instance (Section 3.7, "Loading Persistent Objects", Section 4.4, "Query Result").

The object id type should be default-constructible.

If an object class has private or protected non-transient data members or if its default constructor is not public, then the `odb::access` class, defined in the `<odb/core.hxx>` header, should be declared a friend of this object type. For example:

    #include <odb/core.hxx>

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

    private:
      friend class odb::access;

      person () {}

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;
    };

You may be wondering whether we also have to declare value types as persistent. We don't need to do anything special for simple value types such as `int` or `std::string` since the ODB compiler knows how to map them to suitable database system types and how to convert between the two. On the other hand, if a simple value is unknown to the ODB compiler then we will need to provide the mapping to the database system type and, possibly, the code to convert between the two. For more information on how to achieve this refer to the `db type` pragma description in Section 10.2.1, "`type`". Similar to object types, composite value types have to be explicitly declared as persistent using the `db value` pragma, for example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

Composite value types are discussed in more detail in Chapter 7, "Composite Value Types".

Normally, you would use object types to model real-world entities, things that have their own identity. For example, in the previous chapter we created a `person` class to model a person, which is a real-world entity. Name and age, which we used as data members in our `person` class are clearly values. It is hard to think of age 31 or name "Joe" as having their own identities.

A good test to determine whether something is an object or a value, is to consider if other objects might reference it. A person is clearly an object because it can be referred to by other objects such as a spouse, an employer, or a bank. On the other hand, a person's age or name is not something that other objects would normally refer to.

Also, when an object represents a real entity, it is easy to choose a suitable object id. For example, for a person there is an established notion of an identifier (SSN, student id, passport number, etc). Another alternative is to use a person's email address as an identifier.

Note, however, that these are only guidelines. There could be good reasons to make something that would normally be a value an object. Consider, for example, a database that stores a vast number of people. Many of the `person` objects in this database have the same names and surnames and the overhead of storing them in every object may negatively affect the performance. In this case, we could make the first name and last name each an object and only store pointers to these objects in the `person` class.

An instance of a persistent class can be in one of two states: transient and persistent. A transient instance only has a representation in the application's memory and will cease to exist when the application terminates, unless it is explicitly made persistent. In other words, a transient instance of a persistent class behaves just like an instance of any ordinary C++ class. A persistent instance has a representation in both the application's memory and the database. A persistent instance will remain even after the application terminates unless and until it is explicitly deleted from the database.

## 3.2 Object Pointers

As we have seen in the previous chapter, some database operations create dynamically allocated instances of persistent classes and return pointers to these instances. As we will see in later chapters, pointers are also used to establish relationships between objects (Chapter 6, Relationships) as well as to cache persistent objects in a session (Chapter 9, Session).

By default, all these mechanisms use raw pointers to return, pass, and cache objects. This is normally sufficient for applications that have simple object lifetime requirements and do not use sessions or object relationships. In particular, a dynamically allocated object that is returned as a raw pointer from a database operation can be assigned to a smart pointer of our choice, for example `std::auto_ptr` or `shared_ptr` from TR1 or Boost.

However, to avoid any possibility of a mistake, such as forgetting to use a smart pointer for a returned object, as well as to simplify the use of more advanced ODB functionality, such as sessions and bidirectional object relationships, it is recommended that you use smart pointers with the sharing semantics as object pointers. The `shared_ptr` smart pointer from TR1 or Boost is a good default choice.

ODB provides two mechanisms for changing the object pointer type. We can use the `--default-pointer` option to specify the default object pointer type. All objects that don't have the object pointer explicitly specified with the `db pointer` pragma (see below) will use the default pointer type. Refer to the ODB Compiler Command Line Manual for details on this option's argument. The typical usage is shown below:

    --default-pointer std::tr1::shared_ptr

The second mechanism allows us to specify the object pointer on an object by object basis using the `db pointer` pragma, for example:

    #pragma db object pointer(std::tr1::shared_ptr)
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

Refer to Section 10.1.2, "`pointer`" for more information on this pragma.

Built-in support that is provided by the ODB runtime library allows us to use the TR1 `shared_ptr` and `std::auto_ptr` as object pointers. Plus, ODB profile libraries, that are available for commonly used frameworks and libraries (such as Boost and Qt), provide support for smart pointers found in these frameworks and libraries (Part III, "Profiles"). It is also easy to add support for our own smart pointers, as described in Section 6.4, "Using Custom Smart Pointers".

## 3.3 Database

Before an application can make use of persistence services offered by ODB, it has to create a database class instance. A database instance is the representation of the place where the application stores its persistent objects. We create a database instance by instantiating one of the database system-specific classes. For example, `odb::mysql::database` would be such a class for the MySQL database system. We will also normally pass a database name as an argument to the class' constructor. The following code fragment shows how we can create a database instance for the MySQL database system:

    #include <odb/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/mysql/database.hxx>

    auto_ptr<odb::database> db (
      new odb::mysql::database (
        "test_user"     // database login name
        "test_password" // database password
        "test_database" // database name
        ));

The `odb::database` class is a common interface for all database system-specific classes provided by ODB. You would normally work with the database instance via this interface unless there is a specific functionality that your application depends on and which is only exposed by a particular system's `database` class. You will need to include the `<odb/database.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application.

The `odb::database` interface defines functions for starting transactions and manipulating persistent objects. These are discussed in detail in the remainder of this chapter as well as the next chapter which is dedicated to the topic of querying the database for persistent objects. For details on the system-specific `database` classes, refer to Part II, "Database Systems".

Before we can persist our objects, the corresponding database schema has to be created in the database. The schema contains table definitions and other relational database artifacts that are used to store the state of persistent objects in the database.

There are several ways to create the database schema. The easiest is to instruct the ODB compiler to generate the corresponding schema from the persistent classes (`--generate-schema` option). The ODB compiler can generate the schema either as a standalone SQL file or embedded into the generated C++ code (`--schema-format` option). If we are using the SQL file to create the database schema, then this file should be executed, normally only once, before the application is started.

Alternatively, the schema can be embedded directly into the generated code and we can use the `odb::schema_catalog` class to create it in the database from within our application, for example:

    #include <odb/schema-catalog.hxx>

    odb::transaction t (db->begin ());
    odb::schema_catalog::create_schema (*db);
    t.commit ();

Refer to the next section for information on the `odb::transaction` class. The complete version of the above code fragment is available in the `schema/embedded` example in the `odb-examples` package.

The `odb::schema_catalog` class has the following interface. You will need to include the `<odb/schema-catalog.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application.

    namespace odb
    {
      class schema_catalog
      {
      public:
        static void
        create_schema (database&, const std::string& name = "");
      };
    }

The first argument to the `create_schema()` function is the database instance that we would like to create the schema in. The second argument is the schema name. By default, the ODB compiler generates all embedded schemas with the default schema name (empty string). However, if your application needs to have several separate schemas, you can use the `--default-schema` ODB compiler option to assign custom schema names and then use these names as a second argument to `create_schema()`. If the schema is not found, `create_schema()` throws the `odb::unknown_schema` exception. The `create_schema()` function should be called within a transaction.

Finally, we can also use a custom database schema with ODB. This approach can work similarly to the standalone SQL file described above except that the database schema is hand-written or produced by another program. Or we could execute custom SQL statements that create the schema directly from our application. To map persistent classes to custom database schemas, ODB provides a wide range of mapping customization pragmas, such as `db table`, `db column`, and `db type` (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language"). For sample code that shows how to perform such mapping for various C++ constructs, refer to the `schema/custom` example in the `odb-examples` package.

## 3.4 Transactions

A transaction is an atomic, consistent, isolated and durable (ACID) unit of work. Database operations can only be performed within a transaction and each thread of execution in an application can have only one active transaction at a time.

By atomicity we mean that when it comes to making changes to the database state within a transaction, either all the changes are applied or none at all. Consider, for example, a transaction that transfers funds between two objects representing bank accounts. If the debit function on the first object succeeds but the credit function on the second fails, the transaction is rolled back and the database state of the first object remains unchanged.

By consistency we mean that a transaction must take all the objects stored in the database from one consistent state to another. For example, if a bank account object must reference a person object as its owner and we forget to set this reference before making the object persistent, the transaction will be rolled back and the database will remain unchanged.

By isolation we mean that the changes made to the database state during a transaction are only visible inside this transaction until and unless it is committed. Using the above example with the bank transfer, the results of the debit operation performed on the first object is not visible to other transactions until the credit operation is successfully completed and the transaction is committed.

By durability we mean that once the transaction is committed, the changes that it made to the database state are permanent and will survive failures such as an application crash. From now on the only way to alter this state is to execute and commit another transaction.

A transaction is started by calling the `database::begin()` function. The returned transaction handle is stored in an instance of the `odb::transaction` class. You will need to include the `<odb/transaction.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application. The `odb::transaction` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      class transaction
      {
      public:
        typedef odb::database database_type;

        void
        commit ();

        void
        rollback ();

        database_type&
        database ();

        static transaction&
        current ();

        static bool
        has_current ();
      };
    }

The `commit()` function commits a transaction and `rollback()` rolls it back. Unless the transaction has been finalized, that is, explicitly committed or rolled back, the destructor of the `odb::transaction` class will automatically roll it back when the transaction instance goes out of scope. If we try to commit or roll back a finalized transaction, the `odb::transaction_already_finalized` exception is thrown.

The `database()` function returns the database this transaction is working on. The `current()` static function returns the currently active transaction for this thread. If there is no active transaction, this function throws the `odb::not_in_transaction` exception. We can check whether there is a transaction in effect in this thread using the `has_current()` static function.

Note that in the above discussion of atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability, all of those guarantees only apply to the object's state in the database as opposed to the object's state in the application's memory. It is possible to roll a transaction back but still have changes from this transaction in the application's memory. An easy way to avoid this potential inconsistency is to instantiate persistent objects only within the transaction scope. Consider, for example, these two implementations of the same transaction:

    void
    update_age (database& db, person& p)
    {
      transaction t (db.begin ());

      p.age (p.age () + 1);
      db.update (p);

      t.commit ();
    }

In the above implementation, if the `update()` call fails and the transaction is rolled back, the state of the `person` object in the database and the state of the same object in the application's memory will differ. Now consider an alternative implementation which only instantiates the `person` object for the duration of the transaction:

    void
    update_age (database& db, unsigned long id)
    {
      transaction t (db.begin ());

      auto_ptr<person> p (db.load<person> (id));
      p.age (p.age () + 1);
      db.update (p);

      t.commit ();
    }

Of course, it may not always be possible to write the application in this style. Oftentimes we need to access and modify the application's state of persistent objects out of transactions. In this case it may make sense to try to roll back the changes made to the application state if the transaction was rolled back and the database state remains unchanged. One way to do this is to re-load the object's state from the database, for example:

    void
    update_age (database& db, person& p)
    {
      try
      {
        transaction t (db.begin ());

        p.age (p.age () + 1);
        db.update (p);

        t.commit ();
      }
      catch (...)
      {
        transaction t (db.begin ());
        db.load (p.id (), p);
        t.commit ();

        throw;
      }
    }

## 3.5 Error Handling and Recovery

ODB uses C++ exceptions to report database operation errors. Most ODB exceptions signify hard errors or errors that cannot be corrected without some intervention from the application. For example, if we try to load an object with an unknown object id, the `odb::object_not_persistent` exception is thrown. Our application may be able to correct this error, for instance, by obtaining a valid object id and trying again. The hard errors and corresponding ODB exceptions that can be thrown by each database function are described in the remainder of this chapter with Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions" providing a quick reference for all the ODB exceptions.

The second group of ODB exceptions signify soft or recoverable errors. Such errors are temporary failures which normally can be corrected by simply re-executing the transaction. ODB defines three such exceptions: `odb::connection_lost`, `odb::timeout`, and `odb::deadlock`. All recoverable ODB exceptions are derived from the common `odb::recoverable` base exception which can be used to handle all the recoverable conditions with a single `catch` block.

The `odb::connection_lost` exception is thrown if a connection to the database is lost in the middle of a transaction. In this situation the transaction is aborted but it can be re-tried without any changes. Similarly, the `odb::timeout` exception is thrown if one of the database operations or the whole transaction has timed out. Again, in this case the transaction is aborted but can be re-tried as is.

If two or more transactions access or modify more than one object and are executed concurrently by different applications or by different threads within the same application, then it is possible that these transactions will try to access objects in an incompatible order and deadlock. The canonical example of a deadlock are two transactions in which the first has modified `object1` and is waiting for the second transaction to commit its changes to `object2` so that it can also update `object2`. At the same time the second transaction has modified `object2` and is waiting for the first transaction to commit its changes to `object1` because it also needs to modify `object1`. As a result, none of the two transactions can be completed.

The database system detects such situations and automatically aborts the waiting operation in one of the deadlocked transactions. In ODB this translates to the `odb::deadlock` recoverable exception being thrown from one of the database functions.

The following code fragment shows how to handle the recoverable exceptions by restarting the affected transaction:

    const unsigned short max_retries = 5;

    for (unsigned short retry_count (0); ; retry_count++)
    {
      try
      {
        transaction t (db.begin ());

        ...

        t.commit ();
        break;
      }
      catch (const odb::recoverable& e)
      {
        if (retry_count > max_retries)
          throw retry_limit_exceeded (e.what ());
        else
          continue;
      }
    }

## 3.6 Making Objects Persistent

A newly created instance of a persistent class is transient. We use the `database::persist()` function template to make a transient instance persistent. This function has four overloaded versions with the following signatures:

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::id_type
      persist (const T& object);

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::id_type
      persist (const object_traits<T>::const_pointer_type& object);

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::id_type
      persist (T& object);

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::id_type
      persist (const object_traits<T>::pointer_type& object);

Here and in the rest of the manual, `object_traits<T>::pointer_type` and `object_traits<T>::const_pointer_type` denote the unrestricted and constant object pointer types (Section 3.2, "Object Pointer"), respectively. Similarly, `object_traits<T>::id_type` denotes the object id type. The `odb::object_traits` template is part of the database support code generated by the ODB compiler.

The first `persist()` function expects a constant reference to an instance being persisted. The second function expects a constant object pointer. Both of these functions can only be used on objects with application-assigned object ids (Section 10.3.2, "`auto`").

The second and third `persist()` functions are similar to the first two except that they operate on unrestricted references and object pointers. If the identifier of the object being persisted is assigned by the database, these functions update the id member of the passed instance with the assigned value. All four functions return the object id of the newly persisted object.

If the database already contains an object of this type with this identifier, the `persist()` functions throw the `odb::object_already_persistent` exception. This should never happen for database-assigned object ids as long as the number of objects persisted does not exceed the value space of the id type.

When calling the `persist()` functions, we don't need to explicitly specify the template type since it will be automatically deduced from the argument being passed. The following example shows how we can call these functions:

    person john ("John", "Doe", 33);
    shared_ptr<person> jane (new person ("Jane", "Doe", 32));

    transaction t (db.begin ());

    db->persist (john);
    unsigned long jane_id (db.persist (jane));

    t.commit ();

    cerr << "Jane's id: " << jane_id << endl;

Notice that in the above code fragment we have created instances that we were planning to make persistent before starting the transaction. Likewise, we printed Jane's id after we have committed the transaction. As a general rule, you should avoid performing operations within the transaction scope that can be performed before the transaction starts or after it terminates. An active transaction consumes both your application's resources, such as a database connection, as well as the database server's resources, such as object locks. By following the above rule you make sure these resources are released and made available to other threads in your application and to other applications as soon as possible.

## 3.7 Loading Persistent Objects

Once an object is made persistent, and you know its object id, it can be loaded by the application using the `database::load()` function template. This function has two overloaded versions with the following signatures:

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::pointer_type
      load (const typename object_traits<T>::id_type& id);

      template <typename T>
      void
      load (const typename object_traits<T>::id_type& id, T& object);

Given an object id, the first function allocates a new instance of the object class in the dynamic memory, loads its state from the database, and returns the pointer to the new instance. The second function loads the object's state into an existing instance. Both functions throw `odb::object_not_persistent` if there is no object of this type with this id in the database.

When we call the first `load()` function, we need to explicitly specify the object type. We don't need to do this for the second function because the object type will be automatically deduced from the second argument, for example:

    transaction t (db.begin ());

    auto_ptr<person> jane (db.load<person> (jane_id));

    db.load (jane_id, *jane);

    t.commit ();

If we don't know for sure whether an object with a given id is persistent, we can use the `find()` function instead of `load()`, for example:

      template <typename T>
      typename object_traits<T>::pointer_type
      find (const typename object_traits<T>::id_type& id);

      template <typename T>
      bool
      find (const typename object_traits<T>::id_type& id, T& object);

If an object with this id is not found in the database, the first `find()` function returns a `NULL` pointer while the second function leaves the passed instance unmodified and returns `false`.

If we don't know the object id, then we can use queries to find the object (or objects) matching some criteria (Chapter 4, "Querying the Database"). Note, however, that loading an object's state using its identifier can be significantly faster than executing a query.

## 3.8 Updating Persistent Objects

If a persistent object has been modified, we can store the updated state in the database using the `database::update()` function template. This function has three overloaded versions with the following signatures:

      template <typename T>
      void
      update (const T& object);

      template <typename T>
      void
      update (const object_traits<T>::const_pointer_type& object);

      template <typename T>
      void
      update (const object_traits<T>::pointer_type& object);

The first `update()` function expects an object reference, while the other two expect object pointers. If the object passed to one of these functions does not exist in the database, `update()` throws the `odb::object_not_persistent` exception.

Below is an example of the funds transfer that we talked about in the earlier section on transactions. It uses the hypothetical `bank_account` persistent class:

    void
    transfer (database& db,
              unsigned long from_acc,
              unsigned long to_acc,
              unsigned int amount)
    {
      bank_account from, to;

      transaction t (db.begin ());

      db.load (from_acc, from);

      if (from.balance () < amount)
        throw insufficient_funds ();

      db.load (to_acc, to);

      to.balance (to.balance () + amount);
      from.balance (from.balance () - amount);

      db.update (to);
      db.update (from);

      t.commit ();
    }

The same can be accomplished using dynamically allocated objects and the `update()` function with object pointer argument, for example:

      transaction t (db.begin ());

      shared_ptr<bank_account> from (db.load<bank_account> (from_acc));

      if (from->balance () < amount)
        throw insufficient_funds ();

      shared_ptr<bank_account> to (db.load<bank_account> (to_acc));

      to->balance (to->balance () + amount);
      from->balance (from->balance () - amount);

      db.update (to);
      db.update (from);

      t.commit ();

## 3.9 Deleting Persistent Objects

To delete a persistent object's state from the database we use the `database::erase()` function template. If the application still has an instance of the erased object, this instance becomes transient. The `erase()` function has the following overloaded versions:

      template <typename T>
      void
      erase (const T& object);

      template <typename T>
      void
      erase (const object_traits<T>::const_pointer_type& object);

      template <typename T>
      void
      erase (const object_traits<T>::pointer_type& object);

      template <typename T>
      void
      erase (const typename object_traits<T>::id_type& id);

The first `erase()` function uses an object itself, in the form of an object reference, to delete its state from the database. The next two functions accomplish the same result but using object pointers. Note that all three functions leave the passed object unchanged. It simply becomes transient. The last function uses the object id to identify the object to be deleted. If the object does not exist in the database, then all four functions throw the `odb::object_not_persistent` exception.

We have to specify the object type when calling the last `erase()` function. The same is unnecessary for the first three functions because the object type will be automatically deduced from their arguments. The following example shows how we can call these functions:

    person& john = ...
    shared_ptr<jane> jane = ...
    unsigned long joe_id = ...

    transaction t (db.begin ());

    db.erase (john);
    db.erase (jane);
    db.erase<person> (joe_id);

    t.commit ();

## 3.10 Executing Native SQL Statements

In some situations we may need to execute native SQL statements instead of using the object-oriented database API described above. For example, we may want to tune the database schema generated by the ODB compiler or take advantage of a feature that is specific to the database system we are using. The `database::execute()` function, which has three overloaded versions, provides this functionality:

      unsigned long long
      execute (const char* statement);

      unsigned long long
      execute (const std::string& statement);

      unsigned long long
      execute (const char* statement, std::size_t length)

The first `execute()` function expects the SQL statement as a zero-terminated C-string. The last version expects the explicit statement length as the second argument and the statement itself may contain `'\0'` characters, for example, to represent binary data, if the database system supports it. All three functions return the number of rows that were affected by the statement. For example:

    transaction t (db.begin ());

    db.execute ("DROP TABLE test");
    db.execute ("CREATE TABLE test (n INT PRIMARY KEY)");

    t.commit ();

## 3.11 ODB Exceptions

In the previous sections we have already mentioned some of the exceptions that can be thrown by the database functions. In this section we will discuss the ODB exception hierarchy and document all the exceptions that can be thrown by the common ODB runtime.

The root of the ODB exception hierarchy is the abstract `odb::exception` class. This class derives from `std::exception` and has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      struct exception: std::exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw () = 0;
      };
    }

Catching this exception guarantees that we will catch all the exceptions thrown by ODB. The `what()` function returns a human-readable description of the condition that triggered the exception.

The concrete exceptions that can be thrown by ODB are presented in the following listing:

    namespace odb
    {
      struct null_pointer: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      // Transaction exceptions.
      //
      struct already_in_transaction: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct not_in_transaction: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct transaction_already_finalized: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      // Session exceptions.
      //
      struct already_in_session: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct not_in_session: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct const_object: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      // Database operations exceptions.
      //
      struct recoverable: exception
      {
      };

      struct connection_lost: recoverable
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct timeout: recoverable
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct deadlock: recoverable
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct object_not_persistent: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct object_already_persistent: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct result_not_cached: exception
      {
        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };

      struct database_exception: exception
      {
      };

      // Schema catalog exceptions.
      //
      struct unknown_schema: exception
      {
        const std::string&
        name () const;

        virtual const char*
        what () const throw ();
      };
    }

The `null_pointer` exception is thrown when a pointer to a persistent object declared non-`NULL` with the `db not_null` or `db value_not_null` pragma has the `NULL` value. See Chapter 6, "Relationships" for details.

The next three exceptions (`already_in_transaction`, `not_in_transaction`, `transaction_already_finalized`) are thrown by the `odb::transaction` class and are discussed in Section 3.4, "Transactions".

The next three exceptions (`already_in_session`, `not_in_session`, and `const_object`) are thrown by the `odb::session` class and are discussed in Chapter 9, "Session".

The `recoverable` exception serves as a common base for all the recoverable exceptions, which are: `connection_lost`, `timeout`, and `deadlock`. The `connection_lost` exception is thrown when a connection to the database is lost. Similarly, the `timeout` exception is thrown if one of the database operations or the whole transaction has timed out. The `deadlock` exception is thrown when a transaction deadlock is detected by the database system. These exceptions can be thrown by any database function. See Section 3.5, "Error Handling and Recovery" for details.

The `object_already_persistent` exception is thrown by the `persist()` database function. See Section 3.6, "Making Objects Persistent" for details.

The `object_not_persistent` exception is thrown by the `load()` and `update()` database functions. Refer to Section 3.7, "Loading Persistent Objects" and Section 3.8, "Updating Persistent Objects" for more information.

The `result_not_cached` exception is thrown by the query result class. Refer to Section 4.4, "Query Result" for details.

The `database_exception` exception is a base class for all database system-specific exceptions that are thrown by the database system-specific runtime library. Refer to Part II, "Database Systems" for more information.

The `unknown_schema` exception is thrown by the `odb::schema_catalog` class if a schema with the specified name is not found. Refer to Section 3.3, "Database" for details.

The `odb::exception` class is defined in the `<odb/exception.hxx>` header file. All the concrete ODB exceptions are defined in `<odb/exceptions.hxx>` which also includes `<odb/exception.hxx>`. Normally you don't need to include either of these two headers because they are automatically included by `<odb/database.hxx>`. However, if the source file that handles ODB exceptions does not include `<odb/database.hxx>`, then you will need to explicitly include one of these headers.

# 4 Querying the Database

If we don't know the identifiers of the objects that we are looking for, we can use queries to search the database for objects matching certain criteria. The ODB query facility is optional and we need to explicitly request the generation of the necessary database support code with the `--generate-query` ODB compiler option.

ODB provides a flexible query API that offers two distinct levels of abstraction from the database system query language such as SQL. At the high level we are presented with an easy to use yet powerful object-oriented query language, called ODB Query Language. This query language is modeled after and is integrated into C++ allowing us to write expressive and safe queries that look and feel like ordinary C++. We have already seen examples of these queries in the introductory chapters. Below is another, more interesting, example:

      typedef odb::query<person> query;
      typedef odb::result<person> result;

      unsigned short age;
      query q (query::first == "John" && query::age < query::_ref (age));

      for (age = 10; age < 100; age += 10)
      {
        result r (db.query<person> (q));
        ...
      }

At the low level, queries can be written as predicates using the database system-native query language such as the `WHERE` predicate from the SQL `SELECT` statement. This language will be referred to as native query language. At this level ODB still takes care of converting query parameters from C++ to the database system format. Below is the re-implementation of the above example using SQL as the native query language:

      query q ("first = 'John' AND age = " + query::_ref (age));

Note that at this level we lose the static typing of query expressions. For example, if we wrote something like this:

      query q (query::first == 123 && query::agee < query::_ref (age));

We would get two errors during the C++ compilation. The first would indicate that we cannot compare `query::first` to an integer and the second would pick the misspelling in `query::agee`. On the other hand, if we wrote something like this:

      query q ("first = 123 AND agee = " + query::_ref (age));

It would compile fine and would trigger an error only when executed by the database system.

We can also combine the two query languages in a single query, for example:

      query q ("first = 'John'" + (query::age < query::_ref (age)));

## 4.1 ODB Query Language

An ODB query is an expression that tells the database system whether any given object matches the desired criteria. As such, a query expression always evaluates as `true` or `false`. At the higher level, an expression consists of other expressions combined with logical operators such as `&&` (AND), `||` (OR), and `!` (NOT). For example:

      typedef odb::query<person> query;

      query q (query::first == "John" || query::age == 31);

At the core of every query expression lie simple expressions which involve one or more object members, values, or parameters. To refer to an object member we use an expression such as `query::first` above. The names of members in the `query` class are derived from the names of data members in the object class by removing the common member name decorations, such as leading and trailing underscores, the `m_` prefix, etc.

In a simple expression an object member can be compared to a value, parameter, or another member using a number of predefined operators and functions. The following table gives an overview of the available expressions:

Operator | Description | Example
--- | --- | ---
`==` | equal | `query::age == 31`
`!=` | unequal | `query::age != 31`
`<` | less than | `query::age < 31`
`>` | greater than | `query::age > 31`
`<=` | less than or equal | `query::age <= 31`
`>=` | greater than or equal | `query::age >= 31`
`in()` | one of the values | `query::age.in (30, 32, 34)`
`in_range()` | one of the values in range | `query::age.in_range (begin, end)`
`is_null()` | value is NULL | `query::age.is_null ()`
`is_not_null()` | value is not NULL | `query::age.is_not_null ()`

The `in()` function accepts a maximum of five arguments. Use the `in_range()` function if you need to compare to more than five values. This function accepts a pair of standard C++ iterators and compares to all the values from the `begin` position inclusive and until and excluding the `end` position. The following code fragment shows how we can use these functions:

      std::vector<string> names;

      names.push_back ("John");
      names.push_back ("Jack");
      names.push_back ("Jane");

      query q1 (query::first.in ("John", "Jack", "Jane"));
      query q2 (query::first.in_range (names.begin (), names.end ()));

The operator precedence in the query expressions are the same as for equivalent C++ operators. We can use parentheses to make sure the expression is evaluated in the desired order. For example:

      query q ((query::first == "John" || query::first == "Jane") &&
               query::age < 31);

## 4.2 Parameter Binding

An instance of the `odb::query` class encapsulates two parts of information about the query: the query expression and the query parameters. Parameters can be bound to C++ variables either by value or by reference.

If a parameter is bound by value, then the value for this parameter is copied from the C++ variable to the query instance at the query construction time. On the other hand, if a parameter is bound by reference, then the query instance stores a reference to the bound variable. The actual value of the parameter is only extracted at the query execution time. Consider, for example, the following two queries:

      string name ("John");

      query q1 (query::first == query::_val (name));
      query q2 (query::first == query::_ref (name));

      name = "Jane";

      db.query<person> (q1); // Find John.
      db.query<person> (q2); // Find Jane.

The `odb::query` class provides two special functions, `_val()` and `_ref()`, that allow us to bind the parameter either by value or by reference, respectively. In the ODB query language, if the binding is not specified explicitly, the value semantic is used by default. In the native query language, binding must always be specified explicitly. For example:

      query q1 (query::age < age);                // By value.
      query q2 (query::age < query::_val (age));  // By value.
      query q3 (query::age < query::_ref (age));  // By reference.

      query q4 ("age < " + age);                  // Error.
      query q5 ("age < " + query::_val (age));    // By value.
      query q6 ("age < " + query::_ref (age));    // By reference.

A query that only has by-value parameters does not depend on any other variables and is self-sufficient once constructed. A query that has one or more by-reference parameters depends on the bound variables until the query is executed. If one such variable goes out of scope and we execute the query, the behavior is undefined.

## 4.3 Executing a Query

Once we have the query instance ready and by-reference parameters initialized, we can execute the query using the `database::query()` function template. It has two overloaded versions:

      template <typename T>
      result<T>
      query (bool cache = true);

      template <typename T>
      result<T>
      query (const odb::query<T>&, bool cache = true);

The first `query()` function is used to return all the persistent objects of a given type stored in the database. The second function uses the passed query instance to only return objects matching the query criteria. The `cache` argument determines whether the objects' states should be cached in the application's memory or if they should be returned by the database system one by one as the iteration over the result progresses. The result caching is discussed in detail in the next section.

When calling the `query()` function, we have to explicitly specify the object type we are querying. For example:

      typedef odb::query<person> query;
      typedef odb::result<person> result;

      result all (db.query<person> ());
      result johns (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

Note that it is not required to explicitly create a named query variable before executing it. For example, the following two queries are equivalent:

      query q (query::first == "John");

      result r1 (db.query<person> (q));
      result r1 (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

Normally, we would create a named query instance if we are planning to run the same query multiple times and would use the in-line version for those that are executed only once. A named query instance that does not have any by-reference parameters is immutable and can be shared between multiple threads without synchronization. On the other hand, a query instance with by-reference parameters is modified every time it is executed. If such a query is shared among multiple threads, then access to this query instance must be synchronized from the execution point and until the completion of the iteration over the result.

It is also possible to create queries from other queries by combining them using logical operators. For example:

    result
    find_minors (database& db, const query& name_query)
    {
      return db.query<person> (name_query && query::age < 18);
    }

    result r (find_underage (db, query::first == "John"));

## 4.4 Query Result

The result of executing a query is zero, one, or more objects matching the query criteria. The result is returned as an instance of the `odb::result` class template, for example:

      typedef odb::query<person> query;
      typedef odb::result<person> result;

      result johns (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

It is best to view an instance of `odb::result` as a handle to a stream, such as a file stream. While we can make a copy of a result or assign one result to another, the two instances will refer to the same result stream. Advancing the current position in one instance will also advance it in another. The result instance is only usable within the transaction it was created in. Trying to manipulate the result after the transaction has terminated leads to undefined behavior.

The `odb::result` class template conforms to the standard C++ sequence requirements and has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      template <typename T>
      class result
      {
      public:
        typedef odb::result_iterator<T> iterator;

      public:
        result ();

        result (const result&);

        result&
        operator= (const result&);

        void
        swap (result&)

      public:
        iterator
        begin ();

        iterator
        end ();

      public:
        void
        cache ();

        bool
        empty () const;

        std::size_t
        size () const;
      };
    }

The default constructor creates an empty result set. The `cache()` function caches the returned objects' state in the application's memory. We have already mentioned result caching when we talked about query execution. As you may remember the `database::query()` function caches the result unless instructed not to by the caller. The `cache()` function allows us to cache the result at a later stage if it wasn't already cached during query execution.

If the result is cached, the database state of all the returned objects is stored in the application's memory. Note that the actual objects are still only instantiated on demand during result iteration. It is the raw database state that is cached in memory. In contrast, for uncached results the object's state is sent by the database system one object at a time as the iteration progresses.

Uncached results can improve the performance of both the application and the database system in situations where we have a large number of objects in the result or if we will only examine a small portion of the returned objects. However, uncached results have a number of limitations. There can only be one uncached result in a transaction. Creating another result (cached or uncached) by calling `database::query()` will invalidate the existing uncached result. Furthermore, calling any other database functions, such as `update()` or `erase()` will also invalidate the uncached result.

The `empty()` function returns `true` if there are no objects in the result and `false` otherwise. The `size()` function can only be called for cached results. It returns the number of objects in the result. If we call this function on an uncached result, the `odb::result_not_cached` exception is thrown.

To iterate over the objects in a result we use the `begin()` and `end()` functions together with the `odb::result<T>::iterator` type, for example:

      result r (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

      for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end (); ++i)
      {
        ...
      }

The result iterator is an input iterator which means that the only two position operations that it supports are to move to the next object and to determine whether the end of the result stream has been reached. In fact, the result iterator can only be in two states: the current position and the end position. If we have two iterators pointing to the current position and then we advance one of them, the other will advance as well. This, for example, means that it doesn't make sense to store an iterator that points to some object of interest in the result stream with the intent of dereferencing it after the iteration is over. Instead, we would need to store the object itself.

The result iterator has the following dereference functions that can be used to access the pointed-to object:

    namespace odb
    {
      template <typename T>
      class result_iterator
      {
      public:
        T*
        operator-> () const;

        T&
        operator* () const;

        typename object_traits<T>::pointer_type
        load ();

        void
        load (T& x);
      };
    }

When we call the `*` or `->` operator, the iterator will allocate a new instance of the object class in the dynamic memory, load its state from the database state, and return a reference or pointer to the new instance. The iterator maintains the ownership of the returned object and will return the same pointer for subsequent calls to either of these operators until it is advanced to the next object or we call the first `load()` function (see below). For example:

      result r (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

      for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end ();)
      {
        cout << i->last () << endl; // Create an object.
        person& p (*i);             // Reference to the same object.
        cout << p.age () << endl;
        ++i;                        // Free the object.
      }

The overloaded `result_iterator::load()` functions are similar to `database::load()`. The first function returns a dynamically allocated instance of the current object. As an optimization, if the iterator already owns an object as a result of an earlier call to the `*` or `->` operator, then it relinquishes the ownership of this object and returns it instead. This allows us to write code like this without worrying about a double allocation:

      result r (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

      for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end (); ++i)
      {
        if (i->last == "Doe")
        {
          auto_ptr p (i.load ());
          ...
        }
      }

Note, however, that because of this optimization, a subsequent to `load()` call to the `*` or `->` operator results in the allocation of a new object.

The second `load()` function allows us to load the current object's state into an existing instance. For example:

      result r (db.query<person> (query::first == "John"));

      person p;
      for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end (); ++i)
      {
        i.load (p);
        cout << p.last () << endl;
        cout << i.age () << endl;
      }

# 5 Containers

The ODB runtime library provides built-in persistence support for all the commonly used standard C++ containers, namely, `std::vector`, `std::list`, `std::set`, `std::multiset`, `std::map`, and `std::multimap`. Plus, ODB profile libraries, that are available for commonly used frameworks and libraries (such as Boost and Qt), provide persistence support for containers found in these frameworks and libraries (Part III, "Profiles"). It is also easy to persist custom container types as discussed later in Section 5.4, "Using Custom Containers".

We don't need to do anything special to declare a member of a container type in a persistent class. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
      ...
    };

The complete version of the above code fragment and the other code samples presented in this chapter can be found in the `container` example in the `odb-examples` package.

A data member in a persistent class that is of a container type behaves like a value type. That is, when an object is made persistent, the elements of the container are stored in the database. Similarly, when a persistent object is loaded from the database, the contents of the container are automatically loaded as well.

While an ordinary member is mapped to one or more columns in the object's table, a member of a container type is mapped to a separate table. The exact schema of such a table depends on the kind of container. ODB defines the following container kinds: ordered, set, multiset, map, and multimap. The container kinds and the contents of the tables to which they are mapped are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Containers in ODB can contain simple value types, composite value types (Chapter 7, "Composite Value Types"), and pointers to objects (Chapter 6, "Relationships"). Containers of containers, either directly or indirectly via a composite value type, are not allowed. A key in a map or multimap container can be a simple or composite value type but not a pointer to an object. An index in the ordered container should be a simple integer value type.

The value type in the ordered, set, and map containers as well as the key type in the map containers should be default-constructible. The default constructor in these types can be made private in which case the `odb::access` class should be made a friend of the value or key type. For example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
    public:
      name (const std::string&, const std::string&);
      ...
    private:
      friend class odb::access;
      name ();
      ...
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      std::vector<name> aliases_;
      ...
    };

## 5.1 Ordered Containers

In ODB an ordered container is any container that maintains (explicitly or implicitly) an order of its elements in the form of an integer index. Standard C++ containers that are ordered include `std::vector` and `std::list`. While elements in `std::set` are also kept in a specific order, this order is not based on an integer index but rather on the relationship between elements. As a result, `std::set` is not considered an ordered container for the purpose of persistence.

The database table for an ordered container consists of at least three columns. The first column contains the object id of a persistent class instance of which the container is a member. The second column contains the element index within a container. And the last column contains the element value. If the object id or element value are composite, then, instead of a single column, they can occupy multiple columns.

Consider the following persistent object as an example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;

      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
      ...
    };

The resulting database table (called `person_nicknames`) will contain the object id column of type `unsigned long` (called `object_id`), the index column of an integer type (called `index`), and the value column of type `std::string` (called `value`).

A number of ODB pragmas allow us to customize the table name, column names, and native database types of an ordered container both, on the per-container and per-member basis. For more information on these pragmas, refer to Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language". The following example shows some of the possible customizations:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db table("nicknames")              \
                 id_column("person_id")          \
                 index_type("SMALLINT UNSIGNED") \
                 index_column("nickname_number") \
                 value_type("VARCHAR(255)")      \
                 value_column("nickname")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
      ...
    };

While the C++ container used in a persistent class may be ordered, sometimes we may wish to store such a container in the database without the order information. In the example above, for instance, the order of person's nicknames is probably not important. To instruct the ODB compiler to ignore the order in ordered containers we can use the `db unordered` pragma (Section 10.2.6, "`unordered`", Section 10.3.10, "`unordered`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db unordered
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
      ...
    };

The table for an ordered container that is marked unordered won't have the index column and the order in which elements are retrieved from the database may not be the same as the order in which they were stored.

## 5.2 Set and Multiset Containers

In ODB set and multiset containers (referred to as just set containers) are associative containers that contain elements based on some relationship between them. A set container may or may not guarantee a particular order of the elements that it stores. Standard C++ containers that are considered set containers for the purpose of persistence include `std::set` and `std::multiset`.

The database table for a set container consists of at least two columns. The first column contains the object id of a persistent class instance of which the container is a member. And the second column contains the element value. If the object id or element value are composite, then, instead of a single column, they can occupy multiple columns.

Consider the following persistent object as an example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;

      std::set<std::string> emails_;
      ...
    };

The resulting database table (called `person_emails`) will contain the object id column of type `unsigned long` (called `object_id`) and the value column of type `std::string` (called `value`).

A number of ODB pragmas allow us to customize the table name, column names, and native database types of a set container, both on the per-container and per-member basis. For more information on these pragmas, refer to Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language". The following example shows some of the possible customizations:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db table("emails")            \
                 id_column("person_id")     \
                 value_type("VARCHAR(255)") \
                 value_column("email")
      std::set<std::string> emails_;
      ...
    };

## 5.3 Map and Multimap Containers

In ODB map and multimap containers (referred to as just map containers) are associative containers that contain key-value elements based on some relationship between keys. A map container may or may not guarantee a particular order of the elements that it stores. Standard C++ containers that are considered map containers for the purpose of persistence include `std::map` and `std::multimap`.

The database table for a map container consists of at least three columns. The first column contains the object id of a persistent class instance of which the container is a member. The second column contains the element key. And the last column contains the element value. If the object id, element key, or element value are composite, then instead of a single column they can occupy multiple columns.

Consider the following persistent object as an example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;

      std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map_;
      ...
    };

The resulting database table (called `person_age_weight_map`) will contain the object id column of type `unsigned long` (called `object_id`), the key column of type `unsigned short` (called `key`), and the value column of type `float` (called `value`).

A number of ODB pragmas allow us to customize the table name, column names, and native database types of a map container, both on the per-container and per-member basis. For more information on these pragmas, refer to Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language". The following example shows some of the possible customizations:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db table("weight_map")      \
                 id_column("person_id")   \
                 key_type("INT UNSIGNED") \
                 key_column("age")        \
                 value_type("DOUBLE")     \
                 value_column("weight")
      std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map_;
      ...
    };

## 5.4 Using Custom Containers

While the ODB runtime and profile libraries provide support for a wide range of containers, it is also easy to persist custom container types.

To achieve this you will need to implement the `container_traits` class template specialization for your container. First, determine the container kind (ordered, set, multiset, map, or multimap) for your container type. Then use a specialization for one of the standard C++ containers found in the common ODB runtime library (`libodb`) as a base for your own implementation.

Once the container traits specialization is ready for your container, you will need to include it into the ODB compilation process using the `--odb-epilogue` option and into the generated header files with the `--hxx-prologue` option. As an example, suppose we have a hash table container for which we have the traits specialization implemented in the `hashtable-traits.hxx` file. Then, we can create an ODB compiler options file for this container and save it to `hashtable.options`:

    # Options file for the hash table container.
    #
    --odb-epilogue '#include "hashtable-traits.hxx"'
    --hxx-prologue '#include "hashtable-traits.hxx"'

Now, whenever we compile a header file that uses the hashtable container, we can specify the following command line option to make sure it is recognized by the ODB compiler as a container and the traits file is included in the generated code:

    --options-file hashtable.options

# 6 Relationships

Relationships between persistent objects are expressed with pointers or containers of pointers. The ODB runtime library provides built-in support for the TR1 `shared_ptr`/`weak_ptr`, `std::auto_ptr`, and raw pointers. Plus, ODB profile libraries, that available for commonly used frameworks and libraries (such as Boost and Qt), provide support for smart pointers found in these frameworks and libraries (Part III, "Profiles"). It is also easy to add support for a custom smart pointer as discussed later in Section 6.4, "Using Custom Smart Pointers". Any supported smart pointer can be used in a data member as long as it can be explicitly constructed from the canonical object pointer (Section 3.2, "Object Pointers"). For example, we can use `weak_ptr` if the object pointer is `shared_ptr`.

When an object containing a pointer to another object is loaded, the pointed-to object is loaded as well. In some situations this eager loading of the relationships is undesirable since it can lead to a large number of otherwise unused objects being instantiated from the database. To support finer control over relationships loading, the ODB runtime and profile libraries provide the so-called lazy versions of the supported pointers. An object pointed-to by a lazy pointer is not loaded automatically when the containing object is loaded. Instead, we have to explicitly request the instantiation of the pointed-to object. Lazy pointers are discussed in detail in Section 6.3, "Lazy Pointers".

As a simple example, consider the following employee-employer relationship. Code examples presented in this chapter will use the `shared_ptr` and `weak_ptr` smart pointers from the TR1 (`std::tr1`) namespace.

    #pragma db object
    class employer
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      std::string first_name_;
      std::string last_name_;

      shared_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

By default, an object pointer can be `NULL`. To specify that a pointer always points to a valid object we can use the `not_null` pragma (Section 10.3.4, "`null`/`not_null`") for single object pointers and the `value_not_null` pragma (Section 10.3.15, "`value_null`/`value_not_null`") for containers of object pointers. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<employer> current_employer_;

      #pragma db value_not_null
      std::vector<shared_ptr<employer> > previous_employers_;
    };

In this case, if we perform a database operation on the `employee` object and the `current_employer_` pointer or one of the pointers stored in the `previous_employers_` container is `NULL`, then the `odb::null_pointer` exception will be thrown.

We don't need to do anything special to establish or navigate a relationship between two persistent objects, as shown in the following code fragment:

    // Create an employer and a few employees.
    //
    unsigned long john_id, jane_id;
    {
      shared_ptr<employer> er (new employer ("Example Inc"));
      shared_ptr<employee> john (new employee ("John", "Doe"));
      shared_ptr<employee> jane (new employee ("Jane", "Doe"));

      john->employer_ = er;
      jane->employer_ = er;

      transaction t (db.begin ());

      db.persist (er);
      john_id = db.persist (john);
      jane_id = db.persist (jane);

      t.commit ();
    }

    // Load a few employee objects and print their employer.
    //
    {
      session s;
      transaction t (db.begin ());

      shared_ptr<employee> john (db.load<employee> (john_id));
      shared_ptr<employee> jane (db.load<employee> (jane_id));

      cout << john->employer_->name_ << endl;
      cout << jane->employer_->name_ << endl;

      t.commit ();
    }

The only notable line in the above code is the creation of a session before the second transaction starts. As discussed in Chapter 9, "Session", a session acts as a cache of persistent objects. By creating a session before loading the `employee` objects we make sure that their `employer_` pointers point to the same `employer` object. Without a session, each `employee` would have ended up pointing to its own, private instance of the Example Inc employer.

As a general guideline, you should use a session when loading objects that have pointers to other persistent objects. A session makes sure that for a given object id, a single instance is shared among all other objects that relate to it.

We can also use data members from pointed-to objects in database queries (Chapter 4, "Querying the Database"). For each pointer in a persistent class, the query class defines a nested scope containing members corresponding to the data members in the pointed-to object. For example, the query class for the `employee` object contains the `employer` scope (derived from the `employer_` pointer) which in turn contains the `name` member (derived from the `employer::name_` data member of the pointed-to object). As a result, we can use the `query::employer::name` expression while querying the database for the `employee` objects. For example, the following transaction finds all the employees of Example Inc that have the Doe last name:

    typedef odb::query<employee> query;
    typedef odb::result<employee> result;

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    result r (db->query<employee> (
      query::employer::name == "Example Inc" && query::last == "Doe"));

    for (result::iterator i (r.begin ()); i != r.end (); ++i)
      cout << i->first_ << " " << i->last_ << endl;

    t.commit ();

An important concept to keep in mind when working with object relationships is the independence of persistent objects. In particular, when an object containing a pointer to another object is made persistent or is updated, the pointed-to object is not automatically persisted or updated. Rather, only a reference to the object (in the form of the object id) is stored for the pointed-to object in the database. The pointed-to object itself is a separate entity and should be made persistent or updated independently.

When persisting or updating an object containing a pointer to another object, the pointed-to object must have a valid object id. This, however, may not always be easy to achieve in complex relationships that involve objects with automatically assigned identifiers. In such cases it may be necessary to first persist an object with a pointer set to `NULL` and then, once the pointed-to object is made persistent and its identifier assigned, set the pointer to the correct value and update the object in the database.

Persistent object relationships can be divided into two groups: unidirectional and bidirectional. Each group in turn contains several configurations that vary depending on the cardinality of the sides of the relationship. All possible unidirectional and bidirectional configurations are discussed in the following sections.

## 6.1 Unidirectional Relationships

In unidirectional relationships we are only interested in navigating from object to object in one direction. Because there is no interest in navigating in the opposite direction, the cardinality of the other end of the relationship is unimportant. As a result, there are only two possible unidirectional relationships: to-one and to-many. Each of these relationships is described in the following sections. For sample code that shows how to work with these relationships, refer to the `relationship` example in the `odb-examples` package.

### 6.1.1 To-One Relationships

An example of a unidirectional to-one relationship is the employee-employer relationship (an employee has one employer). The following persistent C++ classes model this relationship:

    #pragma db object
    class employer
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

The corresponding database tables look like this:

    CREATE TABLE employer (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      employer VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL REFERENCES employer (name));

### 6.1.2 To-Many Relationships

An example of a unidirectional to-many relationship is the employee-project relationship (an employee can be involved in multiple projects). The following persistent C++ classes model this relationship:

    #pragma db object
    class project
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db value_not_null unordered
      std::vector<shared_ptr<project> > projects_;
    };

The corresponding database tables look like this:

    CREATE TABLE project (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee_projects (
      object_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      value VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL REFERENCES project (name));

To obtain a more canonical database schema, the names of tables and columns above can be customized using ODB pragmas (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_not_null unordered \
                 id_column("employee_id") value_column("project_name")
      std::vector<shared_ptr<project> > projects_;
    };

The resulting `employee_projects` table would then look like this:

    CREATE TABLE employee_projects (
      employee_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      project_name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL REFERENCES project (name));

## 6.2 Bidirectional Relationships

In bidirectional relationships we are interested in navigating from object to object in both directions. As a result, each object class in a relationship contains a pointer to the other object. If smart pointers are used, then a weak pointer should be used as one of the pointers to avoid ownership cycles. For example:

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class position
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      weak_ptr<employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<position> position_;
    };

Note that when we establish a bidirectional relationship, we have to set both pointers consistently. One way to make sure that a relationship is always in a consistent state is to provide a single function that updates both pointers at the same time. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class position: public enable_shared_from_this<position>
    {
      ...

      void
      fill (shared_ptr<employee> e)
      {
        employee_ = e;
        e->positions_ = shared_from_this ();
      }

    private:
      weak_ptr<employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

    private:
      friend class position;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<position> position_;
    };

Above, to model a bidirectional relationship in persistent classes, we used two pointers, one in each object. While this is a natural representation in C++, it does not translate to a canonical relational model. Consider the database schema generated for the above two classes:

    CREATE TABLE position (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      employee BIGINT UNSIGNED REFERENCES employee (id));

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      position BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL REFERENCES position (id));

While this database schema is valid, it is unconventional. We have a reference from a row in the `position` table to a row in the `employee` table. We also have a reference from this same row in the `employee` table back to the row in the `position` table. From the relational point of view, one of these references is redundant since in SQL we can easily navigate in both directions using just one of these references.

To eliminate redundant database schema references we can use the `inverse` pragma (Section 10.3.9, "`inverse`") which tells the ODB compiler that a pointer is the inverse side of a bidirectional relationship. Either side of a relationship can be made inverse. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class position
    {
      ...

      #pragma db inverse(position_)
      weak_ptr<employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<position> position_;
    };

The resulting database schema looks like this:

    CREATE TABLE position (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      position BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL REFERENCES position (id));

As you can see, an inverse member does not have a corresponding column (or table, in case of an inverse container of pointers) and, from the point of view of database operations, is effectively read-only. The only way to change a bidirectional relationship with an inverse side is to set its direct (non-inverse) pointer. Also note that an ordered container (Section 5.1, "Ordered Containers") of pointers that is an inverse side of a bidirectional relationship is always treated as unordered (Section 10.3.10, "`unordered`") because the contents of such a container are implicitly built from the direct side of the relationship which does not contain the element order (index).

There are three distinct bidirectional relationships that we will cover in the following sections: one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. We will only talk about bidirectional relationships with inverse sides since they result in canonical database schemas. For sample code that shows how to work with these relationships, refer to the `inverse` example in the `odb-examples` package.

### 6.2.1 One-to-One Relationships

An example of a bidirectional one-to-one relationship is the presented above employee-position relationship (an employee fills one position and a position is filled by one employee). The following persistent C++ classes model this relationship:

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class position
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db inverse(position_)
      weak_ptr<employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<position> position_;
    };

The corresponding database tables look like this:

    CREATE TABLE position (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      position BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL REFERENCES position (id));

If instead the other side of this relationship is made inverse, then the database tables will change as follows:

    CREATE TABLE position (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      employee BIGINT UNSIGNED REFERENCES employee (id));

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

### 6.2.2 One-to-Many Relationships

An example of a bidirectional one-to-many relationship is the employer-employee relationship (an employer has multiple employees and an employee is employed by one employer). The following persistent C++ classes model this relationship:

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class employer
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;

      #pragma db value_not_null inverse(employer_)
      std::vector<weak_ptr<employee> > employees_
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

The corresponding database tables differ significantly depending on which side of the relationship is made inverse. If the one side (`employer`) is inverse as in the code above, then the resulting database schema looks like this:

    CREATE TABLE employer (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      employer VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL REFERENCES employer (name));

If instead the many side (`employee`) of this relationship is made inverse, then the database tables will change as follows:

    CREATE TABLE employer (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employer_employees (
      object_id VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL,
      value BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL REFERENCES employee (id));

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

### 6.2.3 Many-to-Many Relationships

An example of a bidirectional many-to-many relationship is the employee-project relationship (an employee can work on multiple projects and a project can have multiple participating employees). The following persistent C++ classes model this relationship:

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class project
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;

      #pragma db value_not_null inverse(projects_)
      std::vector<weak_ptr<employee> > employees_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db value_not_null unordered
      std::vector<shared_ptr<project> > projects_;
    };

The corresponding database tables look like this:

    CREATE TABLE project (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE employee_projects (
      object_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      value VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL REFERENCES project (name));

If instead the other side of this relationship is made inverse, then the database tables will change as follows:

    CREATE TABLE project (
      name VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

    CREATE TABLE project_employees (
      object_id VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL,
      value BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL REFERENCES employee (id));

    CREATE TABLE employee (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

## 6.3 Lazy Pointers

Consider again the bidirectional, one-to-many employer-employee relationship that was presented earlier in this chapter:

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class employer
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string name_;

      #pragma db value_not_null inverse(employer_)
      std::vector<weak_ptr<employee> > employees_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

Consider also the following transaction which obtains the employer name given the employee id:

    unsigned long id = ...
    string name;

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    shared_ptr<employee> e (db.load<employee> (id));
    name = e->employer_->name_;

    t.commit ();

While this transaction looks very simple, it actually does a lot more than what meets the eye and is necessary. Consider what happens when we load the `employee` object: the `employer_` pointer is also automatically loaded which means the `employer` object corresponding to this employee is also loaded. But the `employer` object in turn contains the list of pointers to all the employees, which are also loaded. A a result, when object relationships are involved, a simple transaction like the above can load many more objects than is necessary.

To overcome this problem ODB offers finer grained control over the relationship loading in the form of lazy pointers. A lazy pointer does not automatically load the pointed-to object when the containing object is loaded. Instead, we have to explicitly load the pointed-to object if and when we need to access it.

The ODB runtime library provides lazy counterparts for all the supported pointers, namely: `odb::lazy_shared_ptr` and `odb::lazy_weak_ptr` for TR1 `shared_ptr` and `weak_ptr`, `odb::lazy_auto_ptr` for `std::auto_ptr`, and `odb::lazy_ptr` for raw pointers. The ODB profile libraries provide lazy pointer implementations for smart pointers from popular frameworks and libraries (Part III, "Profiles").

While we will discuss the interface of lazy pointers in more detail shortly, the most commonly used extra function provided by these pointers is `load()`. This function loads the pointed-to object if it hasn't already been loaded. After the call to this function, the lazy pointer can be used in the the same way as its eager counterpart. The `load()` function also returns the eager pointer, in case you need to pass it around. For a lazy weak pointer, the `load()` function also locks the pointer.

The following example shows how we can change our employer-employee relationship to use lazy pointers. Here we choose to use lazy pointers for both sides of the relationship.

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class employer
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_not_null inverse(employer_)
      std::vector<lazy_weak_ptr<employee> > employees_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      lazy_shared_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

And the transaction is changed like this:

    unsigned long id = ...
    string name;

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    shared_ptr<employee> e (db.load<employee> (id));
    e->employer_.load ();
    name = e->employer_->name_;

    t.commit ();

As a general guideline we recommend that you make at least one side of a bidirectional relationship lazy, especially for relationships with a many side.

A lazy pointer implementation mimics the interface of its eager counterpart which can be used once the pointer is loaded. It also adds a number of additional functions that are specific to the lazy loading functionality. Overall, the interface of a lazy pointer follows this general outline:

    template <class T>
    class lazy_ptr
    {
    public:
      //
      // The eager pointer interface.
      //

      // Initialization/assignment from an eager pointer.
      //
    public:
      template <class Y> lazy_ptr (const eager_ptr<Y>&);
      template <class Y> lazy_ptr& operator= (const eager_ptr<Y>&);

      // Lazy loading interface.
      //
    public:
      //  NULL      loaded()
      //
      //  true       true      NULL pointer to transient object
      //  false      true      valid pointer to persistent object
      //  true       false     unloaded pointer to persistent object
      //  false      false     valid pointer to transient object
      //
      bool loaded () const;

      eager_ptr<T> load () const;

      // Unload the pointer. For transient objects this function is
      // equivalent to reset().
      //
      void unload () const;

      // Initialization with a persistent loaded object.
      //
      template <class Y> lazy_ptr (database&, Y*);
      template <class Y> lazy_ptr (database&, const eager_ptr<Y>&);

      template <class Y> void reset (database&, Y*);
      template <class Y> void reset (database&, const eager_ptr<Y>&);

      // Initialization with a persistent unloaded object.
      //
      template <class ID> lazy_ptr (database&, const ID&);

      template <class ID> void reset (database&, const ID&);

      // Query object id and database of a persistent object.
      //
      template <class O /* = T */>
      object_traits<O>::id_type object_id () const;

      odb::database& database () const;
    };

In a lazy weak pointer interface, the `load()` function returns the strong (shared) eager pointer. The following transaction demonstrates the use of a lazy weak pointer based on the `employer` and `employee` classes presented earlier.

    typedef std::vector<lazy_weak_ptr<employee> > employees;

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    shared_ptr<employer> er (db.load<employer> ("Example Inc"));
    employees& es (er->employees ());

    for (employees::iterator i (es.begin ()); i != es.end (); ++i)
    {
      // We are only interested in employees with object id less than
      // 100.
      //
      lazy_weak_ptr<employee>& lwp (*i);

      if (lwp.object_id<employee> () < 100)
      {
        shared_ptr<employee> e (lwp.load ()); // Load and lock.
        cout << e->first_ << " " << e->last_ << endl;
      }
    }

    t.commit ();

Notice that inside the for-loop we use a reference to the lazy weak pointer instead of making a copy. This is not merely to avoid a copy. When a lazy pointer is loaded, all other lazy pointers that point to the same object do not automatically become loaded (though an attempt to load such copies will result in them pointing to the same object, provided the same session is still in effect). By using a reference in the above transaction we make sure that we load the pointer that is contained in the `employer` object. This way, if we later need to re-examine this `employee` object, the pointer will already be loaded.

As another example, suppose we want to add an employee to Example Inc. The straightforward implementation of this transaction is presented below:

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    shared_ptr<employer> er (db.load<employer> ("Example Inc"));
    shared_ptr<employee> e (new employee ("John", "Doe"));

    e->employer_ = er;
    er->employees ().push_back (e);

    db.persist (e);
    t.commit ();

Notice here that we didn't have to update the employer object in the database since the `employees_` list of pointers is an inverse side of a bidirectional relationship and is effectively read-only, from the persistence point of view.

A faster implementation of this transaction, that avoids loading the employer object, relies on the ability to initialize an unloaded lazy pointer with the database where the object is stored as well as its identifier:

    lazy_shared_ptr<employer> er (db, std::string ("Example Inc"));
    shared_ptr<employee> e (new employee ("John", "Doe"));

    e->employer_ = er;

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    db.persist (e);

    t.commit ();

## 6.4 Using Custom Smart Pointers

While the ODB runtime and profile libraries provide support for the majority of widely-used pointers, it is also easy to add support for a custom smart pointer.

To achieve this you will need to implement the `pointer_traits` class template specialization for your pointer. The first step is to determine the pointer kind since the interface of the `pointer_traits` specialization varies depending on the pointer kind. The supported pointer kinds are: raw (raw pointer or equivalent, that is, unmanaged), unique (smart pointer that doesn't support sharing), shared (smart pointer that supports sharing), and weak (weak counterpart of the shared pointer). Any of these pointers can be lazy, which also affects the interface of the `pointer_traits` specialization.

Once you have determined the pointer kind for your smart pointer, use a specialization for one of the standard pointers found in the common ODB runtime library (`libodb`) as a base for your own implementation.

Once the pointer traits specialization is ready, you will need to include it into the ODB compilation process using the `--odb-epilogue` option and into the generated header files with the `--hxx-prologue` option. As an example, suppose we have the `smart_ptr` smart pointer for which we have the traits specialization implemented in the `smart-ptr-traits.hxx` file. Then, we can create an ODB compiler options file for this pointer and save it to `smart-ptr.options`:

    # Options file for smart_ptr.
    #
    --odb-epilogue '#include "smart-ptr-traits.hxx"'
    --hxx-prologue '#include "smart-ptr-traits.hxx"'

Now, whenever we compile a header file that uses `smart_ptr`, we can specify the following command line option to make sure it is recognized by the ODB compiler as a smart pointer and the traits file is included in the generated code:

    --options-file smart-ptr.options

It is also possible to implement a lazy counterpart for your smart pointer. The ODB runtime library provides a class template that encapsulates the object id management and loading functionality that is needed to implement a lazy pointer. All you need to do is wrap it with an interface that mimics your smart pointer. Using one of the existing lazy pointer implementations (either from the ODB runtime library or one of the profile libraries) as a base for your implementation is the easiest way to get started.

# 7 Composite Value Types

A composite value type is a `class` or `struct` type that is mapped to more than one database column. To declare a composite value type we use the `db value` pragma, for example:

    #pragma db value
    class basic_name
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

The complete version of the above code fragment and the other code samples presented in this chapter can be found in the `composite` example in the `odb-examples` package.

A composite value type does not have to define a default constructor, unless it is used as an element of a container, in which case the default constructor can be made private. If a composite value type has private or protected non-transient data members or if its default constructor is not public and the value type is used as an element of a container, then the `odb::access` class should be declared a friend of this value type. For example:

    #pragma db value
    class basic_name
    {
    public:
      basic_name (const std::string& first, const std::string& last);

      ...

    private:
      friend class odb::access;

      basic_name () {} // Needed for storing basic_name in containers.

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

The members of a composite value can be other value types (either simple or composite), containers (Chapter 5, "Containers"), and pointers to objects (Chapter 6, "Relationships"). Similarly, a composite value type can be used in object members, as an element of a container, and as a base for another composite value type. In particular, composite value types can be used as element types in set containers (Section 5.2, "Set and Multiset Containers") and as key types in map containers (Section 5.3, "Map and Multimap Containers"). A composite value type that is used as an element of a container cannot contain other containers since containers of containers are not allowed. The following example illustrates some of the possible use cases:

    #pragma db value
    class basic_name
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

    typedef std::vector<basic_name> basic_names;

    #pragma db value
    class name_extras
    {
      ...

      std::string nickname_;
      basic_names aliases_;
    };

    #pragma db value
    class name: public basic_name
    {
      ...

      std::string title_;
      name_extras extras_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      name name_;
    };

We can also use data members from composite value types in database queries (Chapter 4, "Querying the Database"). For each composite value in a persistent class, the query class defines a nested scope containing members corresponding to the data members in the value type. For example, the query class for the `person` object presented above contains the `name` scope (derived from the `name_` data member) which in turn contains the `extras` member (derived from the `name::extras_` data member of the composite value type). This process continues recursively for nested composite value types and, as a result, we can use the `query::name::extras::nickname` expression while querying the database for the `person` objects. For example:

    typedef odb::query<person> query;
    typedef odb::result<person> result;

    transaction t (db->begin ());

    result r (db->query<person> (
      query::name::extras::nickname == "Squeaky"));

    ...

    t.commit ();

## 7.1 Composite Value Column and Table Names

Customizing a column name for a data member of a simple value type is straightforward: we simply specify the desired name with the `db column` pragma (Section 10.3.7, "`column`"). For composite value types things are slightly more complex since they are mapped to multiple columns. Consider the following example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;

      name name_;
    };

The column names for the `first_` and `last_` members are constructed by using the sanitized name of the `person::name_` member as a prefix and the names of the members in the value type (`first_` and `last_`) as suffixes. As a result, the database schema for the above classes will look like this:

    CREATE TABLE person (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      name_first TEXT NOT NULL,
      name_last TEXT NOT NULL);

We can customize both the prefix and the suffix using the `db column` pragma as shown in the following example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
      ...

      #pragma db column("first_name")
      std::string first_;

      #pragma db column("last_name")
      std::string last_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db column("person_")
      name name_;
    };

The database schema changes as follows:

    CREATE TABLE person (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      person_first_name TEXT NOT NULL,
      person_last_name TEXT NOT NULL);

We can also make the column prefix empty, for example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db column("")
      name name_;
    };

This will result in the following schema:

    CREATE TABLE person (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      first_name TEXT NOT NULL,
      last_name TEXT NOT NULL);

The same principle applies when a composite value type is used as an element of a container, except that instead of `db column`, either the `db value_column` (Section 10.3.23, "`value_column`") or `db key_column` (Section 10.3.22, "`key_column`") pragmas are used to specify the column prefix.

When a composite value type contains a container, an extra table is used to store its elements (Chapter 5, "Containers"). The names of such tables are constructed in a way similar to the column names, except that by default both the object name and the member name are used as a prefix. For example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      name name_;
    };

The corresponding database schema will look like this:

    CREATE TABLE person_name_nicknames (
      object_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      index BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      value TEXT NOT NULL)

    CREATE TABLE person (
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
      name_first TEXT NOT NULL,
      name_last TEXT NOT NULL);

To customize the container table name we can use the `db table` pragma (Section 10.3.11, "`table`"), for example:

    #pragma db value
    class name
    {
      ...

      #pragma db table("nickname")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db table("person_")
      name name_;
    };

This will result in the following schema changes:

    CREATE TABLE person_nickname (
      object_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      index BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
      value TEXT NOT NULL)

Similar to columns, we can make the table prefix empty.

# 8 Inheritance

In C++ inheritance can be used to achieve two different goals. We can employ inheritance to reuse common data and functionality in multiple classes. For example:

    class person
    {
    public:
      const std::string&
      first () const;

      const std::string&
      last () const;

    private:
      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

    class employee: public person
    {
      ...
    };

    class contractor: public person
    {
      ...
    };

In the above example both the `employee` and `contractor` classes inherit the `first_` and `last_` data members as well as the `first()` and `last()` accessors from the `person` base class.

A common trait of this inheritance style, referred to as reuse inheritance from now on, is the lack of virtual functions and a virtual destructor in the base class. Also with this style the application code is normally written in terms of derived classes instead of a base.

The second way to utilize inheritance in C++ is to provide polymorphic behavior through a common interface. In this case the base class defines a number of virtual functions and, normally, a virtual destructor while the derived classes provide specific implementations of these virtual functions. For example:

    class person
    {
    public:
      enum employment_status
      {
        unemployed,
        temporary,
        permanent,
        self_employed
      };

      virtual employment_status
      employment () const = 0;

      virtual
      ~person ();
    };

    class employee: public person
    {
    public:
      virtual employment_status
      employment () const
      {
        return temporary_ ? temporary : permanent;
      }

    private:
      bool temporary_;
    };

    class contractor: public person
    {
    public:
      virtual employment_status
      employment () const
      {
        return self_employed;
      }
    };

With this inheritance style, which we will call polymorphism inheritance, the application code normally works with derived classes via the base class interface. Note also that it is very common to mix both styles in the same hierarchy. For example, the above two code fragments can be combined so that the `person` base class provides the common data members and functions as well as defines the polymorphic interface.

The following sections describe the available strategies for mapping reuse and polymorphism inheritance styles to a relational data model. Note also that the distinction between the two styles is conceptual rather than formal. For example, it is possible to treat a class hierarchy that defines virtual functions as a case of reuse inheritance if this results in the desired database mapping and semantics.

Generally, classes that employ reuse inheritance are mapped to completely independent entities in the database. They use different object id spaces and should always be passed to and returned from the database operations as pointers or references to derived types. In other words, from the persistence point of view, such classes behave as if the data members from the base classes were copied verbatim into the derived ones.

In contrast, classes that employ polymorphism inheritance share the object id space and can be passed to and returned from the database operations polymorphically as pointers or references to the base class.

For both inheritance styles it is sometimes desirable to prevent instances of a base class from being stored in the database. To achieve this a persistent class can be declared abstract using the `db abstract` pragma (Section 10.1.3, "`abstract`"). Note that a C++-abstract class, or a class that has one or more pure virtual functions and therefore cannot be instantiated, is also database-abstract. However, a database-abstract class is not necessarily C++-abstract. The ODB compiler automatically treats C++-abstract classes as database-abstract.

## 8.1 Reuse Inheritance

Each non-abstract class from the reuse inheritance hierarchy is mapped to a separate database table that contains all its data members, including those inherited from base classes. An abstract persistent class does not have to define an object id, nor a default constructor, and it does not have a corresponding database table. An abstract class cannot be a pointed-to object in a relationship. Multiple inheritance is supported as long as each base class is only inherited once. The following example shows a persistent class hierarchy employing reuse inheritance:

    // Abstract person class. Note that it does not declare the
    // object id.
    //
    #pragma db object abstract
    class person
    {
      ...

      std::string first_;
      std::string last_;
    };

    // Abstract employee class. It derives from the person class and
    // declares the object id for all the concrete employee types.
    //
    #pragma db object abstract
    class employee: public person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;
    };

    // Concrete permanent_employee class. Note that it doesn't define
    // any data members of its own.
    //
    #pragma db object
    class permanent_employee: public employee
    {
      ...
    };

    // Concrete temporary_employee class. It adds the employment
    // duration in months.
    //
    #pragma db object
    class temporary_employee: public employee
    {
      ...

      unsigned long duration_;
    };

    // Concrete contractor class. It derives from the person class
    // (and not employee; an independent contractor is not considered
    // an employee). We use the contractor's external email address
    // as the object id.
    //
    #pragma db object
    class contractor: public person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string email_;
    };

The sample database schema for this hierarchy is shown below.

    CREATE TABLE permanent_employee (
      first TEXT NOT NULL,
      last TEXT NOT NULL,
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT);

    CREATE TABLE temporary_employee (
      first TEXT NOT NULL,
      last TEXT NOT NULL,
      id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
      duration BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL);

    CREATE TABLE contractor (
      first TEXT NOT NULL,
      last TEXT NOT NULL,
      email VARCHAR (255) NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY);

The complete version of the code presented in this section is available in the `inheritance` example in the `odb-examples` package.

## 8.2 Polymorphism Inheritance

Polymorphism inheritance mapping is not yet implemented. Future versions of ODB will add support for this functionality.

# 9 Session

A session is an application's unit of work that may encompass several database transactions. In this version of ODB a session is just an object cache. In future versions it will provide additional functionality, such as automatic object state change tracking and optimistic concurrency.

Each thread of execution in an application can have only one active session at a time. A session is started by creating an instance of the `odb::session` class and is automatically terminated when this instance is destroyed. You will need to include the `<odb/session.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application. For example:

    #include <odb/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/session.hxx>
    #include <odb/transaction.hxx>

    using namespace odb::core;

    {
      session s;

      // First transaction.
      //
      {
        transaction t (db.begin ());
        ...
        t.commit ();
      }

      // Second transaction.
      //
      {
        transaction t (db.begin ());
        ...
        t.commit ();
      }

      // Session 's' is terminated here.
    }

The `session` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      class session
      {
      public:
        session ();
        ~session ();

        // Copying or assignment of sessions is not supported.
        //
      private:
        session (const session&);
        session& operator= (const session&);

        // Current session interface.
        //
      public:
        static session&
        current ();

        static bool
        has_current ();

        static void
        current (session&);

        static void
        reset_current ();

        // Object cache interface.
        //
      public:
        typedef odb::database database_type;

        template <typename T>
        void
        insert (database_type&,
                const object_traits<T>::id_type&,
                const object_traits<T>::pointer_type&);

        template <typename T>
        object_traits<T>::pointer_type
        find (database_type&, const object_traits<T>::id_type&) const;

        template <typename T>
        void
        erase (database_type&, const object_traits<T>::id_type&);
      };
    }

The session constructor creates a new session and sets it as a current session for this thread. If we try to create another session while there is already a current session in effect, the constructor throws the `odb::already_in_session` exception. The destructor clears the current session for this thread if this session is the current one.

The static `current()` accessor returns the currently active session for this thread. If there is no active session, this function throws the `odb::not_in_session` exception. We can check whether there is a session in effect in this thread using the `has_current()` static function.

The static `current()` modifier allows us to set the current session for this thread. The `reset_current()` static function clears the current session. These two functions allow for more advanced use cases, such as multiplexing between two or more sessions in the same thread.

We normally don't use the object cache interface directly. However, it could be useful in some cases, for example, to find out whether an object has already been loaded.

## 9.1 Object Cache

A session is an object cache. Every time an object is made persistent by calling the `database::persist()` function (Section 3.6, "Making Objects Persistent"), loaded by calling the `database::load()` or `database::find()` function (Section 3.7, "Loading Persistent Objects"), or loaded by iterating over a query result (Section 4.4, "Query Result"), the pointer to the persistent object, in the form of the canonical object pointer (Section 3.2, "Object Pointers"), is stored in the session. For as long as the session is in effect, any subsequent calls to load the same object will return the cached instance. When an object's state is deleted from the database with the `database::erase()` function (Section 3.9, "Deleting Persistent Objects"), the cached object pointer is removed from the session. For example:

    shared_ptr<person> p (new person ("John", "Doe"));

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    unsigned long id (db.persist (p));            // p is cached in s.
    shared_ptr<person> p1 (db.load<person> (id)); // p1 same as p.

    t.commit ();

The per-object caching policies depend on the object pointer kind (Section 6.4, "Using Custom Smart Pointers"). Objects with a unique pointer, such as `std::auto_ptr`, as an object pointer are never cached since it is not possible to have two such pointers pointing to the same object. When an object is persisted via a pointer or loaded as a dynamically allocated instance, objects with both raw and shared pointers as object pointers are cached. If an object is persisted as a reference or loaded into a pre-allocated instance, the object is only cached if its object pointer is a raw pointer.

Finally, the session caches both constant and unrestricted objects, depending on whether a constant reference or constant pointer was passed to the `database::persist()` function (in contrast, when loaded, objects are always created and cached as unrestricted). If we try to load an object as unrestricted that was previously persisted and cached as constant, the `odb::const_object` exception is thrown. The following transaction shows the situation where this would happen:

    shared_ptr<const person> p (new person ("John", "Doe"));

    session s;
    transaction t (db.begin ());

    unsigned long id (db.persist (p));
    shared_ptr<const person> p1 (db.load<const person> (id)); // Ok.
    shared_ptr<person> p2 (db.load<person> (id));             // Exception.

    t.commit ();

# 10 ODB Pragma Language

As we have already seen in previous chapters, ODB uses a pragma-based language to capture database-specific information about C++ types. This chapter describes the ODB pragma language in more detail. It can be read together with other chapters in the manual to get a sense of what kind of configurations and mapping fine-tuning are possible. You can also use this chapter as a reference at a later stage.

An ODB pragma has the following syntax:

`#pragma db qualifier [specifier specifier ...]`

The qualifier tells the ODB compiler what kind of C++ construct this pragma describes. Valid qualifiers are `object`, `value`, and `member`. Pragmas with the `object` qualifier describe persistent object types. It tells the ODB compiler that the C++ class it describes is a persistent class. Similarly, pragmas with the `value` qualifier describes value types and the `member` qualifier is used to describe data members of persistent object and value types.

The specifier informs the ODB compiler about a particular database-related property of the C++ declaration. For example, the `id` member specifier tells the ODB compiler that this member contains this object's identifier. Below is the declaration of the `person` class that shows how we can use ODB pragmas:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      #pragma db member id
      unsigned long id_;
      ...
    };

In the above example we don't explicitly specify which C++ class or data member the pragma belongs to. Rather, the pragma applies to a C++ declaration that immediately follows the pragma. Such pragmas are called positioned pragmas. In positioned pragmas that apply to data members, the `member` qualifier can be omitted for brevity, for example:

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;

Note also that if the C++ declaration immediately following a position pragma is incompatible with the pragma qualifier, an error will be issued. For example:

      #pragma db object  // Error: expected class instead of data member.
      unsigned long id_;

While keeping the C++ declarations and database declarations close together eases maintenance and increases readability, we can also place them in different parts of the same header file or even factor them to a separate file. To achieve this we use the so called named pragmas. Unlike positioned pragmas, named pragmas explicitly specify the C++ declaration to which they apply by adding the declaration name after the pragma qualifier. For example:

    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      unsigned long id_;
      ...
    };

    #pragma db object(person)
    #pragma db member(person::id_) id

Note that in the named pragmas for data members the `member` qualifier is no longer optional. The C++ declaration name in the named pragmas is resolved using the standard C++ name resolution rules, for example:

    namespace db
    {
      class person
      {
        ...
      private:
        unsigned long id_;
        ...
      };
    }

    namespace db
    {
      #pragma db object(person)  // Resolves db::person.
    }

    #pragma db member(db::person::id_) id

As another example, the following code fragment shows how to use the named value type pragma to map a C++ type to a native database type:

    #pragma db value(bool) type("INT")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    private:
      bool married_; // Mapped to INT NOT NULL database type.
      ...
    };

If we would like to factor the ODB pragmas into a separate file, we can include this file into the original header file (the one that defines the persistent types) using the `#include` directive, for example:

    // person.hxx

    class person
    {
      ...
    };

    #ifdef ODB_COMPILER
    #  include "person-pragmas.hxx"
    #endif

Alternatively, instead of using the `#include` directive, we can use the `--odb-epilogue` option to make the pragmas known to the ODB compiler when compiling the original header file, for example:

    --odb-epilogue  '#include "person-pragmas.hxx"'

The following three sections cover the specifiers applicable to the `object`, `value`, and `member` qualifiers.

The C++ header file that defines our persistent classes and normally contains one or more ODB pragmas is compiled by both the ODB compiler to generate the database support code and the C++ compiler to build the application. Some C++ compilers issue warnings about pragmas that they do not recognize. There are several ways to deal with this problem which are covered at the end of this chapter in Section 10.4, "C++ Compiler Warnings".

## 10.1 Object Type Pragmas

A pragma with the `object` qualifier declares a C++ class as a persistent object type. The qualifier can be optionally followed, in any order, by one or more specifiers summarized in the table below:

Specifier | Summary | Section
--- | --- | ---
`table` | table name for a persistent class | 10.1.1
`pointer` | pointer type for a persistent class | 10.1.2
`abstract` | persistent class is abstract | 10.1.3
`callback` | database operations callback | 10.1.4

### 10.1.1 `table`

The `table` specifier specifies the table name that should be used to store objects of a class in a relational database. For example:

    #pragma db object table("people")
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

If the table name is not specified, the class name is used as the table name.

### 10.1.2 `pointer`

The `pointer` specifier specifies the object pointer type for a persistent class. The object pointer type is used to return, pass, and cache dynamically allocated instances of a persistent class. For example:

    #pragma db object pointer(std::tr1::shared_ptr<person>)
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

There are several ways to specify an object pointer with the `pointer` specifier. We can use a complete pointer type as shown in the example above. Alternatively, we can specify only the template name of a smart pointer in which case the ODB compiler will automatically append the class name as a template argument. The following example is therefore equivalent to the one above:

    #pragma db object pointer(std::tr1::shared_ptr)
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

If you would like to use the raw pointer as an object pointer, you can use `*` as a shortcut:

    #pragma db object pointer(*) // Same as pointer(person*)
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

If a pointer type is not explicitly specified, the default pointer, specified with the `--default-pointer` ODB compiler option, is used. If this option is not specified either, then the raw pointer is used by default.

For a more detailed discussion of object pointers, refer to Section 3.2, "Object Pointers".

### 10.1.3 `abstract`

The `abstract` specifier specifies that a persistent class is abstract. An instance of an abstract class cannot be stored in the database and is normally used as a base for other persistent classes. For example:

    #pragma db object abstract
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee: public person
    {
      ...
    };

    #pragma db object
    class contractor: public person
    {
      ...
    };

Persistent classes with pure virtual functions are automatically treated as abstract by the ODB compiler. For a more detailed discussion of persistent class inheritance, refer to Chapter 8, "Inheritance".

### 10.1.4 `callback`

The `callback` specifier specifies the persist class member function that should be called before and after a database operation is performed on an object of this class. For example:

    #include <odb/callback.hxx>

    #pragma db object callback(init)
    class person
    {
      ...

      void
      init (odb::callback_event, odb::database&);
    };

The callback function has the following signature and can be overloaded for constant objects:

    void
    name (odb::callback_event, odb::database&);

    void
    name (odb::callback_event, odb::database&) const;

The first argument to the callback function is the event that triggered this call. The `odb::callback_event` enum-like type is defined in the `<odb/callback.hxx>` header file and has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      struct callback_event
      {
        enum value
        {
          pre_persist,
          post_persist,
          pre_load,
          post_load,
          pre_update,
          post_update,
          pre_erase,
          post_erase
        };

        callback_event (value v);
        operator value () const;
      };
    }

The second argument to the callback function is the database on which the operation is about to be performed or has just been performed.

If only the non-`const` version of the callback function is provided, then only database operations that are performed on unrestricted objects will trigger callback calls. If only the `const` version is provided, then the database operations on both constant and unrestricted objects will trigger callback calls but the object will always be passed as constant. Finally, if both versions are provided, then the `const` overload will be called for constant objects and the non-`const` overload for unrestricted objects. These rules are modeled after the standard C++ overload resolution rules. A callback function can be inline or virtual.

A database operations callback can be used to implement object-specific pre and post initializations, registrations, and cleanups. As an example, the following code fragment outlines an implementation of a `person` class that maintains the transient `age` data member in addition to the persistent date of birth. A callback is used to calculate the value of the former from the latter every time a `person` object is loaded from the database.

    #include <odb/core.hxx>
    #include <odb/callback.hxx>

    #pragma db object callback(init)
    class person
    {
      ...

    private:
      friend class odb::access;

      date born_;

      #pragma db transient
      unsigned short age_;

      void
      init (odb::callback_event e, odb::database&)
      {
        switch (e)
        {
        case odb::callback_event::post_load:
        {
          // Calculate age from the date of birth.
          ...
          break;
        }
        default:
          break;
        }
      }
    };

## 10.2 Value Type Pragmas

A pragma with the `value` qualifier describes a value type. It can be optionally followed, in any order, by one or more specifiers summarized in the table below:

Specifier | Summary | Section
--- | --- | ---
`type` | database type for a value type | 10.2.1
`id_type` | database type for a value type when used as an object id | 10.2.2
`null`/`not_null` | type can/cannot be `NULL` | 10.2.3
`default` | default value for a value type | 10.2.4
`options` | database options for a value type | 10.2.5
`unordered` | ordered container should be stored unordered | 10.2.6
`index_type` | database type for a container's index type | 10.2.7
`key_type` | database type for a container's key type | 10.2.8
`value_type` | database type for a container's value type | 10.2.9
`value_null`/`value_not_null` | container's value can/cannot be `NULL` | 10.2.10
`id_options` | database options for a container's id column | 10.2.11
`index_options` | database options for a container's index column | 10.2.12
`key_options` | database options for a container's key column | 10.2.13
`value_options` | database options for a container's value column | 10.2.14
`id_column` | column name for a container's object id | 10.2.15
`index_column` | column name for a container's index | 10.2.16
`key_column` | column name for a container's key | 10.2.17
`value_column` | column name for a container's value | 10.2.18

Many of the value type specifiers have corresponding member type specifiers with the same names (Section 10.3, "Data Member Pragmas"). The behavior of such specifiers for members is similar to that for value types. The only difference is the scope. A particular value type specifier applies to all the members of this value type that don't have a pre-member version of the specifier, while the member specifier always applies only to a single member. Also, with a few exceptions, member specifiers take precedence over and override parameters specified with value specifiers.

### 10.2.1 `type`

The `type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for data members of this type. For example:

    #pragma db value(bool) type("INT")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      bool married_; // Mapped to INT NOT NULL database type.
    };

The ODB compiler provides the default mapping between common C++ types, such as `bool`, `int`, and `std::string` and the database types for each supported database system. For more information on the default mapping, refer to Part II, "Database Systems". The `null` and `not_null` (Section 10.2.3, "`null`/`not_null`") specifiers can be used to control the NULL semantics of a type.

In the above example we changed the mapping for the `bool` type which is now mapped to the `INT` database type. In this case, the `value` pragma is all that is necessary since the ODB compiler will be able to figure out how to store a boolean value as an integer in the database. However, there could be situations where the ODB compiler will not know how to handle the conversion between the C++ and database representations of a value. Consider, as an example, a situation where the boolean value is stored in the database as a string:

    #pragma db value(bool) type("VARCHAR(5)")

The possible database values for the C++ `true` value could be `"true"`, or `"TRUE"`, or `"True"`. Or, maybe, all of the above could be valid. The ODB compiler has no way of knowing how your application wants to convert `bool` to a string and back. To support such custom value type mappings, ODB allows you to provide your own database conversion functions by specializing the `value_traits` class template. The `mapping` example in the `odb-examples` package shows how to do this for all the supported database systems.

### 10.2.2 `id_type`

The `id_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for data members of this type that are designated as object identifiers (Section 10.3.1, "`id`"). In combination with the `type` specifier (Section 10.2.1, "`type`") `id_type` allows you to map a C++ type differently depending on whether it is used in an ordinary member or an object id. For example:

    #pragma db value(std::string) type("TEXT") id_type("VARCHAR(128)")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string email_; // Mapped to VARCHAR(128) NOT NULL.

      std::string name_;  // Mapped to TEXT NOT NULL.
    };

Note that there is no corresponding member type specifier for `id_type` since the desired result can be achieved with just the `type` specifier, for example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id type("VARCHAR(128)")
      std::string email_;
    };

### 10.2.3 `null`/`not_null`

The `null` and `not_null` specifiers specify that a value type or object pointer can or cannot be `NULL`, respectively. By default, value types are assumed not to allow `NULL` values while object pointers are assumed to allow `NULL` values. Data members of types that allow `NULL` values are mapped in a relational database to columns that allow `NULL` values. For example:

    using std::tr1::shared_ptr;

    typedef shared_ptr<std::string> string_ptr;
    #pragma db value(string_ptr) type("TEXT") null

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      string_ptr name_; // Mapped to TEXT NULL.
    };

    typedef shared_ptr<person> person_ptr;
    #pragma db value(person_ptr) not_null

The `NULL` semantics can also be specified on the per-member basis (Section 10.3.4, "`null`/`not_null`"). If both a type and a member have `null`/`not_null` specifiers, then the member specifier takes precedence. If a member specifier relaxes the `NULL` semantics (that is, if a member has the `null` specifier and the type has the explicit `not_null` specifier), then a warning is issued.

It is also possible to override a previously specified `null`/`not_null` specifier. This is primarily useful if a third-party type, for example, one provided by a profile library (Part III, "Profiles"), allows `NULL` values but in your object model data members of this type should never be `NULL`. In this case you can use the `not_null` specifier to disable `NULL` values for this type for the entire translation unit. For example:

    // By default, null_string allows NULL values.
    //
    #include <null-string.hxx>

    // Disable NULL values for all the null_string data members.
    //
    #pragma db value(null_string) not_null

For a more detailed discussion of the `NULL` semantics for the object pointers, refer to Chapter 6, "Relationships".

### 10.2.4 `default`

The `default` specifier specifies the database default value that should be used for data members of this type. For example:

    #pragma db value(std::string) default("")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      std::string name_; // Mapped to TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT ''.
    };

The semantics of the `default` specifier for a value type are similar to those of the `default` specifier for a data member (Section 10.3.5, "`default`").

### 10.2.5 `options`

The `options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for data members of this type. For example:

    #pragma db value(std::string) options("COLLATE binary")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      std::string name_; // Mapped to TEXT NOT NULL COLLATE binary.
    };

The semantics of the `options` specifier for a value type are similar to those of the `options` specifier for a data member (Section 10.3.6, "`options`").

### 10.2.6 `unordered`

The `unordered` specifier specifies that the ordered container should be stored unordered in the database. The database table for such a container will not contain the index column and the order in which elements are retrieved from the database may not be the same as the order in which they were stored. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> names;
    #pragma db value(names) unordered

For a more detailed discussion of ordered containers and their storage in the database, refer to Section 5.1, "Ordered Containers".

### 10.2.7 `index_type`

The `index_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for an ordered container's index column. The semantics of `index_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.2.1, "`type`"). The native database type is expected to be an integer type. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> names;
    #pragma db value(names) index_type("SMALLINT UNSIGNED")

### 10.2.8 `key_type`

The `key_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for a map container's key column. The semantics of `key_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.2.1, "`type`"). For example:

    typedef std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map;
    #pragma db value(age_weight_map) key_type("INT UNSIGNED")

### 10.2.9 `value_type`

The `value_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for a container's value column. The semantics of `value_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.2.1, "`type`"). For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> names;
    #pragma db value(names) value_type("VARCHAR(255)")

The `value_null` and `value_not_null` (Section 10.2.10, "`value_null`/`value_not_null`") specifiers can be used to control the NULL semantics of a value column.

### 10.2.10 `value_null`/`value_not_null`

The `value_null` and `value_not_null` specifiers specify that a container type's element value can or cannot be `NULL`, respectively. The semantics of `value_null` and `value_not_null` are similar to those of the `null` and `not_null` specifiers (Section 10.2.3, "`null`/`not_null`"). For example:

    using std::tr1::shared_ptr;

    #pragma db object
    class account
    {
      ...
    };

    typedef std::vector<shared_ptr<account> > accounts;
    #pragma db value(accounts) value_not_null

For set and multiset containers (Section 5.2, "Set and Multiset Containers") the element value is automatically treated as not allowing a `NULL` value.

### 10.2.11 `id_options`

The `id_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's id column. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> nicknames;
    #pragma db value(nicknames) id_options("COLLATE binary")

The semantics of the `id_options` specifier for a container type are similar to those of the `id_options` specifier for a container data member (Section 10.3.16, "`id_options`").

### 10.2.12 `index_options`

The `index_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's index column. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> nicknames;
    #pragma db value(nicknames) index_options("ZEROFILL")

The semantics of the `index_options` specifier for a container type are similar to those of the `index_options` specifier for a container data member (Section 10.3.17, "`index_options`").

### 10.2.13 `key_options`

The `key_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's key column. For example:

    typedef std::map<std::string, std::string> properties;
    #pragma db value(properties) key_options("COLLATE binary")

The semantics of the `key_options` specifier for a container type are similar to those of the `key_options` specifier for a container data member (Section 10.3.18, "`key_options`").

### 10.2.14 `value_options`

The `value_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's value column. For example:

    typedef std::set<std::string> nicknames;
    #pragma db value(nicknames) value_options("COLLATE binary")

The semantics of the `value_options` specifier for a container type are similar to those of the `value_options` specifier for a container data member (Section 10.3.19, "`value_options`").

### 10.2.15 `id_column`

The `id_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the object id in a container's table. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> names;
    #pragma db value(names) id_column("id")

If the column name is not specified, then `object_id` is used by default.

### 10.2.16 `index_column`

The `index_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the element index in an ordered container's table. For example:

    typedef std::vector<std::string> names;
    #pragma db value(names) index_column("name_number")

If the column name is not specified, then `index` is used by default.

### 10.2.17 `key_column`

The `key_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the key in a map container's table. For example:

    typedef std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map;
    #pragma db value(age_weight_map) key_column("age")

If the column name is not specified, then `key` is used by default.

### 10.2.18 `value_column`

The `value_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the element value in a container's table. For example:

    typedef std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map;
    #pragma db value(age_weight_map) value_column("weight")

If the column name is not specified, then `value` is used by default.

## 10.3 Data Member Pragmas

A pragma with the `member` qualifier or a positioned pragma without a qualifier describes a data member. It can be optionally followed, in any order, by one or more specifiers summarized in the table below:

Specifier | Summary | Section
--- | --- | ---
`id` | member is an object id | 10.3.1
`auto` | id is assigned by the database | 10.3.2
`type` | database type for a member | 10.3.3
`null`/`not_null` | member can/cannot be `NULL` | 10.3.4
`default` | default value for a member | 10.3.5
`options` | database options for a member | 10.3.6
`column` | column name for a member | 10.3.7
`transient` | member is not stored in the database | 10.3.8
`inverse` | member is an inverse side of a bidirectional relationship | 10.3.9
`unordered` | ordered container should be stored unordered | 10.3.10
`table` | table name for a container | 10.3.11
`index_type` | database type for a container's index type | 10.3.12
`key_type` | database type for a container's key type | 10.3.13
`value_type` | database type for a container's value type | 10.3.14
`value_null`/`value_not_null` | container's value can/cannot be `NULL` | 10.3.15
`id_options` | database options for a container's id column | 10.3.16
`index_options` | database options for a container's index column | 10.3.17
`key_options` | database options for a container's key column | 10.3.18
`value_options` | database options for a container's value column | 10.3.19
`id_column` | column name for a container's object id | 10.3.20
`index_column` | column name for a container's index | 10.3.21
`key_column` | column name for a container's key | 10.3.22
`value_column` | column name for a container's value | 10.3.23

Many of the member specifiers have corresponding value type specifiers with the same names (Section 10.2, "Value Type Pragmas"). The behavior of such specifiers for members is similar to that for value types. The only difference is the scope. A particular value type specifier applies to all the members of this value type that don't have a pre-member version of the specifier, while the member specifier always applies only to a single member. Also, with a few exceptions, member specifiers take precedence over and override parameters specified with value specifiers.

### 10.3.1 `id`

The `id` specifier specifies that a data member contains the object id. Every persistent class must have a member designated as an object's identifier. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      std::string email_;
    };

In a relational database, an identifier member is mapped to a primary key.

### 10.3.2 `auto`

The `auto` specifier specifies that the object's identifier is automatically assigned by the database. Only a member that was designated as an object id can have this specifier. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id auto
      unsigned long id_;
    };

Note that automatically-assigned object ids are not reused. If you have a high object turnover (that is, objects are routinely made persistent and then erased), then care must be taken not to run out of object ids. In such situations, using `unsigned long long` as the identifier type is a safe choice.

For additional information on the automatic identifier assignment, refer to Section 3.6, "Making Objects Persistent".

### 10.3.3 `type`

The `type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db type("INT")
      bool married_;
    };

The `null` and `not_null` (Section 10.3.4, "`null`/`not_null`") specifiers can be used to control the NULL semantics of a data member.

### 10.3.4 `null`/`not_null`

The `null` and `not_null` specifiers specify that a data member can or cannot be `NULL`, respectively. By default, data members of basic value types for which database mapping is provided by the ODB compiler do not allow `NULL` values while data members of object pointers allow `NULL` values. Other value types, such as those provided by the profile libraries (Part III, "Profiles"), may or may not allow `NULL` values, depending on the semantics of each value type. Consult the relevant documentation to find out more about the `NULL` semantics for such value types. A data member containing the object id (Section 10.3.1, "`id`" ) is automatically treated as not allowing a `NULL` value. Data members that allow `NULL` values are mapped in a relational database to columns that allow `NULL` values. For example:

    using std::tr1::shared_ptr;

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db null
      std::string name_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class account
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      shared_ptr<person> holder_;
    };

The `NULL` semantics can also be specified on the per-type basis (Section 10.2.3, "`null`/`not_null`"). If both a type and a member have `null`/`not_null` specifiers, then the member specifier takes precedence. If a member specifier relaxes the `NULL` semantics (that is, if a member has the `null` specifier and the type has the explicit `not_null` specifier), then a warning is issued.

For a more detailed discussion of the `NULL` semantics for the object pointers, refer to Chapter 6, "Relationships".

### 10.3.5 `default`

The `default` specifier specifies the database default value that should be used for a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db default(-1)
      int age_;              // Mapped to INT NOT NULL DEFAULT -1.
    };

A default value can be the special `null` keyword, a `bool` literal (`true` or `false`), an integer literal, a floating point literal, a string literal, or an enumerator name. If you need to specify a default value that is an expression, for example an SQL function call, then you can use the `options` specifier (Section 10.3.6, "`options`") instead. For example:

    enum gender {male, female, undisclosed};

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db default(null)
      nullable<std::string> middle_;    // DEFAULT NULL

      #pragma db default(false)
      bool married_;                    // DEFAULT 0/FALSE

      #pragma db default(0.0)
      float weight_;                    // DEFAULT 0.0

      #pragma db default("Mr")
      string title_;                    // DEFAULT 'Mr'

      #pragma db default(undisclosed)
      gender gender_;                   // DEFAULT 2/'undisclosed'

      #pragma db options("DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()")
      date timestamp_;                  // DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()
    };

Default values specified as enumerators are only supported for members that are mapped to an `ENUM` or an integer type in the database, which is the case for the automatic mapping of C++ enums to suitable database types as performed by the ODB compiler. If you have mapped a C++ enum to another database type, then you should use a literal corresponding to that type to specify the default value. For example:

    enum gender {male, female, undisclosed};
    #pragma db value(gender) type("VARCHAR(11)")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db default("undisclosed")
      gender gender_;                   // DEFAULT 'undisclosed'
    };

A default value can also be specified on the per-type basis (Section 10.2.4, "`default`"). An empty `default` specifier can be used to reset a default value that was previously specified on the per-type basis. For example:

    #pragma db value(std::string) default("")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db default()
      std::string name_;   // No default value.
    };

A data member containing the object id (Section 10.3.1, "`id`" ) is automatically treated as not having a default value even if its type specifies a default value.

Note also that default values do not affect the generated C++ code in any way. In particular, no automatic initialization of data members with their default values is performed at any point. If you need such an initialization, you will need to implement it yourself, for example, in your persistent class constructors. The default values only affect the generated database schemas and, in the context of ODB, are primarily useful for schema evolution.

### 10.3.6 `options`

The `options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db options("UNIQUE")
      std::string email_; // Mapped to TEXT NOT NULL UNIQUE.
    };

Options can also be specified on the per-type basis (Section 10.2.5, "`options`"). By default, options are accumulating. That is, the ODB compiler first adds all the options specified for a value type followed by all the options specified for a data member. To clear the accumulated options at any point in this sequence you can use an empty `options` specifier. For example:

    #pragma db value(std::string) options("COLLATE binary")

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      std::string first_; // TEXT NOT NULL COLLATE binary

      #pragma db options("UNIQUE")
      std::string last_;  // TEXT NOT NULL COLLATE binary UNIQUE

      #pragma db options()
      std::string title_; // TEXT NOT NULL

      #pragma db options() options("UNIQUE")
      std::string email_; // TEXT NOT NULL UNIQUE
    };

ODB provides dedicated specifiers for specifying column types (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"), `NULL` constraints (Section 10.3.4, "`null`/`not_null`"), and default values (Section 10.3.5, "`default`"). For ODB to function correctly these specifiers should always be used instead of the opaque `options` specifier for these components of a column definition.

### 10.3.7 `column`

The `column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store a data member in a relational database. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id column("person_id")
      unsigned long id_;
    };

For a member of a composite value type, the `column` specifier specifies the column name prefix. Refer to Section 7.1, "Composite Value Column and Table Names" for details.

If the column name is not specified, it is derived from the member name by removing the common data member name decorations, such as leading and trailing underscores, the `m_` prefix, etc.

### 10.3.8 `transient`

The `transient` specifier instructs the ODB compiler not to store a data member in the database. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      date born_;

      #pragma db transient
      unsigned short age_; // Computed from born_.
    };

This pragma is usually used on computed members, pointers and references that are only meaningful in the application's memory, as well as utility members such as mutexes, etc.

### 10.3.9 `inverse`

The `inverse` specifier specifies that a data member of an object pointer or a container of object pointers type is an inverse side of a bidirectional object relationship. The single required argument to this specifier is the corresponding data member name in the referenced object. For example:

    using std::tr1::shared_ptr;
    using std::tr1::weak_ptr;

    class person;

    #pragma db object pointer(shared_ptr)
    class employer
    {
      ...

      std::vector<shared_ptr<person> > employees_;
    };

    #pragma db object pointer(shared_ptr)
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db inverse(employee_)
      weak_ptr<employer> employer_;
    };

An inverse member does not have a corresponding column or, in case of a container, table in the resulting database schema. Instead, the column or table from the referenced object is used to retrieve the relationship information. Only ordered and set containers can be used for inverse members. If an inverse member is of an ordered container type, it is automatically marked as unordered (Section 10.3.10, "`unordered`").

For a more detailed discussion of inverse members, refer to Section 6.2, "Bidirectional Relationships".

### 10.3.10 `unordered`

The `unordered` specifier specifies that a member of an ordered container type should be stored unordered in the database. The database table for such a member will not contain the index column and the order in which elements are retrieved from the database may not be the same as the order in which they were stored. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db unordered
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

For a more detailed discussion of ordered containers and their storage in the database, refer to Section 5.1, "Ordered Containers".

### 10.3.11 `table`

The `table` specifier specifies the table name that should be used to store the contents of a container member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db table("nicknames")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

If the table name is not specified, then the container table name is constructed by concatenating the object's table name, underscore, and the sanitized member name. The sanitized member name is obtained by removing the common member name decorations, such as leading and trailing underscores, the `m_` prefix, etc. In the example above, without the `table` specifier, the container's table name would have been `person_nicknames`.

The `table` specifier can also be used for members of composite value types. In this case it specifies the table name prefix for container members inside the composite value type. Refer to Section 7.1, "Composite Value Column and Table Names" for details.

### 10.3.12 `index_type`

The `index_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for an ordered container's index column of a data member. The semantics of `index_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"). The native database type is expected to be an integer type. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db index_type("SMALLINT UNSIGNED")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

### 10.3.13 `key_type`

The `key_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for a map container's key column of a data member. The semantics of `key_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db key_type("INT UNSIGNED")
      std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map_;
    };

### 10.3.14 `value_type`

The `value_type` specifier specifies the native database type that should be used for a container's value column of a data member. The semantics of `value_type` are similar to those of the `type` specifier (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_type("VARCHAR(255)")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

The `value_null` and `value_not_null` (Section 10.3.15, "`value_null`/`value_not_null`") specifiers can be used to control the NULL semantics of a value column.

### 10.3.15 `value_null`/`value_not_null`

The `value_null` and `value_not_null` specifiers specify that a container's element value for a data member can or cannot be `NULL`, respectively. The semantics of `value_null` and `value_not_null` are similar to those of the `null` and `not_null` specifiers (Section 10.3.4, "`null`/`not_null`"). For example:

    using std::tr1::shared_ptr;

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
    };

    #pragma db object
    class account
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_not_null
      std::vector<shared_ptr<person> > holders_;
    };

For set and multiset containers (Section 5.2, "Set and Multiset Containers") the element value is automatically treated as not allowing a `NULL` value.

### 10.3.16 `id_options`

The `id_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's id column of a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id options("COLLATE binary")
      std::string name_;

      #pragma db id_options("COLLATE binary")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

The semantics of `id_options` are similar to those of the `options` specifier (Section 10.3.6, "`options`").

### 10.3.17 `index_options`

The `index_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's index column of a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db index_options("ZEROFILL")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

The semantics of `index_options` are similar to those of the `options` specifier (Section 10.3.6, "`options`").

### 10.3.18 `key_options`

The `key_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's key column of a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db key_options("COLLATE binary")
      std::map<std::string, std::string> properties_;
    };

The semantics of `key_options` are similar to those of the `options` specifier (Section 10.3.6, "`options`").

### 10.3.19 `value_options`

The `value_options` specifier specifies additional column definition options that should be used for a container's value column of a data member. For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_options("COLLATE binary")
      std::set<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

The semantics of `value_options` are similar to those of the `options` specifier (Section 10.3.6, "`options`").

### 10.3.20 `id_column`

The `id_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the object id in a container's table for a data member. The semantics of `id_column` are similar to those of the `column` specifier (Section 10.3.7, "`column`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id_column("person_id")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

If the column name is not specified, then `object_id` is used by default.

### 10.3.21 `index_column`

The `index_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the element index in an ordered container's table for a data member. The semantics of `index_column` are similar to those of the `column` specifier (Section 10.3.7, "`column`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db index_column("nickname_number")
      std::vector<std::string> nicknames_;
    };

If the column name is not specified, then `index` is used by default.

### 10.3.22 `key_column`

The `key_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the key in a map container's table for a data member. The semantics of `key_column` are similar to those of the `column` specifier (Section 10.3.7, "`column`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db key_column("age")
      std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map_;
    };

If the column name is not specified, then `key` is used by default.

### 10.3.23 `value_column`

The `value_column` specifier specifies the column name that should be used to store the element value in a container's table for a data member. The semantics of `value_column` are similar to those of the `column` specifier (Section 10.3.7, "`column`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db value_column("weight")
      std::map<unsigned short, float> age_weight_map_;
    };

If the column name is not specified, then `value` is used by default.

## 10.4 C++ Compiler Warnings

When a C++ header file defining persistent classes and containing ODB pragmas is used to build the application, the C++ compiler may issue warnings about pragmas that it doesn't recognize. There are several ways to deal with this problem. The easiest is to disable such warnings using one of the compiler-specific command line options or warning control pragmas. This method is described in the following sub-section for popular C++ compilers.

There are also several C++ compiler-independent methods that we can employ. The first is to use the `PRAGMA_DB` macro, defined in `<odb/core.hxx>`, instead of using `#pragma db` directly. This macro expands to the ODB pragma when compiled with the ODB compiler and to an empty declaration when compiled with other compilers. The following example shows how we can use this macro:

    #include <odb/core.hxx>

    PRAGMA_DB(object)
    class person
    {
      ...

      PRAGMA_DB(id)
      unsigned long id_;
    };

An alternative to using the `PRAGMA_DB` macro is to group the `#pragma db` directives in blocks that are conditionally included into compilation only when compiled with the ODB compiler. For example:

    class person
    {
      ...

      unsigned long id_;
    };

    #ifdef ODB_COMPILER
    #  pragma db object(person)
    #  pragma db member(person::id_) id
    #endif

The disadvantage of this approach is that it can quickly become overly verbose when positioned pragmas are used.

### 10.4.1 GNU C++

GNU g++ does not issue warnings about unknown pragmas unless requested with the `-Wall` command line option. To disable only the unknown pragma warning, we can add the `-Wno-unknown-pragmas` option after `-Wall`, for example:

    g++ -Wall -Wno-unknown-pragmas ...

### 10.4.2 Visual C++

Microsoft Visual C++ issues an unknown pragma warning (C4068) at warning level 1 or higher. This means that unless we have disabled the warnings altogether (level 0), we will see this warning.

To disable this warning via the compiler command line, we can add the `/wd4068` C++ compiler option in Visual Studio 2008 and earlier. In Visual Studio 2010 there is now a special GUI field where we can enter warning numbers that should be disabled. Simply enter 4068 into this field.

We can also disable this warning for only a specific header or a fragment of a header using the warning control pragma. For example:

    #include <odb/core.hxx>

    #pragma warning (push)
    #pragma warning (disable:4068)

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      #pragma db id
      unsigned long id_;
    };

    #pragma warning (pop)

### 10.4.3 Sun C++

The Sun C++ compiler does not issue warnings about unknown pragmas unless the `+w` or `+w2` option is specified. To disable only the unknown pragma warning we can add the `-erroff=unknownpragma` option anywhere on the command line, for example:

    CC +w -erroff=unknownpragma ...

### 10.4.4 IBM XL C++

IBM XL C++ issues an unknown pragma warning (1540-1401) by default. To disable this warning we can add the `-qsuppress=1540-1401` command line option, for example:

    xlC -qsuppress=1540-1401 ...

### 10.4.5 HP aC++

HP aC++ (aCC) issues an unknown pragma warning (2161) by default. To disable this warning we can add the `+W2161` command line option, for example:

    aCC +W2161 ...

# PART II DATABASE SYSTEMS

Part II covers topics specific to the database system implementations and their support in ODB. In particular, it describes the system-specific `database` classes as well as the default mapping between basic C++ value types and native database types. Part II consists of the following chapters.

# 11 MySQL Database

To generate support code for the MySQL database you will need to pass the "`--database mysql`" (or "`-d mysql`") option to the ODB compiler. Your application will also need to link to the MySQL ODB runtime library (`libodb-mysql`). All MySQL-specific ODB classes are defined in the `odb::mysql` namespace.

## 11.1 MySQL Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between basic C++ value types and MySQL database types. This mapping can be customized on the per-type and per-member basis using the ODB Pragma Language (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language").

C++ Type | MySQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`bool` | `TINYINT(1)` | `NOT NULL`
`char` | `TINYINT` | `NOT NULL`
`signed char` | `TINYINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned char` | `TINYINT UNSIGNED` | `NOT NULL`
`short` | `SMALLINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned short` | `SMALLINT UNSIGNED` | `NOT NULL`
`int` | `INT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned int` | `INT UNSIGNED` | `NOT NULL`
`long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long` | `BIGINT UNSIGNED` | `NOT NULL`
`long long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long long` | `BIGINT UNSIGNED` | `NOT NULL`
`float` | `FLOAT` | `NOT NULL`
`double` | `DOUBLE` | `NOT NULL`
`std::string` | `TEXT/VARCHAR(255)` | `NOT NULL`

Note that the `std::string` type is mapped differently depending on whether the member of this type is an object id or not. If the member is an object id, then for this member `std::string` is mapped to the `VARCHAR(255)` MySQL type. Otherwise, it is mapped to `TEXT`.

Additionally, by default, C++ enumerations are automatically mapped to a suitable MySQL type. Contiguous enumerations with the zero first enumerator are mapped to the MySQL `ENUM` type. All other enumerations are mapped to `INT` or `INT UNSIGNED`. In both cases the default `NULL` semantics is `NOT NULL`. For example:

    enum color {red, green, blue};
    enum taste
    {
      bitter = 1, // Non-zero first enumerator.
      sweet,
      sour = 4,   // Non-contiguous.
      salty
    };

    #pragma object
    class object
    {
      ...

      color color_; // Mapped to ENUM ('red', 'green', 'blue') NOT NULL.
      taste taste_; // Mapped to INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL.
    };

## 11.2 MySQL Database Class

The MySQL `database` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace mysql
      {
        class database: public odb::database
        {
        public:
          database (const char* user,
                    const char* passwd,
                    const char* db,
                    const char* host = 0,
                    unsigned int port = 0,
                    const char* socket = 0,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string& passwd,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host = "",
                    unsigned int port = 0,
                    const std::string* socket = 0,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string* passwd,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host = "",
                    unsigned int port = 0,
                    const std::string* socket = 0,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string& passwd,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host,
                    unsigned int port,
                    const std::string& socket,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string* passwd,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host,
                    unsigned int port,
                    const std::string& socket,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (int& argc,
                    char* argv[],
                    bool erase = false,
                    unsigned long client_flags = 0,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          static void
          print_usage (std::ostream&);

        public:
          const char*
          user () const;

          const char*
          password () const;

          const char*
          db () const;

          const char*
          host () const;

          unsigned int
          port () const;

          const char*
          socket () const;

          unsigned long
          client_flags () const;

        public:
          details::shared_ptr<mysql::connection>
          connection ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/mysql/database.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application.

The overloaded `database` constructors allow us to specify MySQL database parameters that should be used when connecting to the database. In MySQL `NULL` and an empty string are treated as the same values for all the string parameters except `password` and `socket`. The `client_flags` argument allows us to specify various MySQL client library flags. For more information on the possible values, refer to the MySQL C API documentation. The `CLIENT_FOUND_ROWS` flag is always set by the MySQL ODB runtime regardless of whether it was passed in the `client_flags` argument.

The last constructor extracts the database parameters from the command line. The following options are recognized:

      --user <login>
      --password <password>
      --database <name>
      --host <host>
      --port <integer>
      --socket <socket>
      --options-file <file>

The `--options-file` option allows us to specify some or all of the database options in a file with each option appearing on a separate line followed by a space and an option value.

If the `erase` argument to this constructor is true, then the above options are removed from the `argv` array and the `argc` count is updated accordingly. This is primarily useful if your application accepts other options or arguments and you would like to get the MySQL options out of the `argv` array.

This constructor throws the `odb::mysql::cli_exception` exception if the MySQL option values are missing or invalid. See section Section 11.4, "MySQL Exceptions" for more information on this exception.

The static `print_usage()` function prints the list of options with short descriptions that are recognized by this constructor.

The last argument to all of the constructors is a pointer to the connection factory. If we pass a non-`NULL` value, the database instance assumes ownership of the factory instance. The connection factory interface as well as the available implementations are described in the next section.

The set of accessor functions following the constructors allows us to query the parameters of the `database` instance.

The `connection()` function returns the MySQL database connection encapsulated by the `odb::mysql::connection` class. Normally, we wouldn't call this function directly and instead let the ODB runtime manage the database connections. However, if for some reason you need to access the underlying MySQL connection handle, refer to the MySQL ODB runtime source code for the interface of the `connection` class.

## 11.3 MySQL Connection Factory

The `connection_factory` abstract class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace mysql
      {
        class connection_factory
        {
        public:
          virtual void
          database (mysql::database&) = 0;

          virtual details::shared_ptr<mysql::connection>
          connect () = 0;
        };
      }
    }

The `database()` function is called when a connection factory is associated with a database instance. This happens in the `odb::mysql::database` class constructors. The `connect()` function is called whenever a database connection is requested.

The two implementations of the `connection_factory` interface provided by the MySQL ODB runtime are `new_connection_factory` and `connection_pool_factory`. You will need to include the `<odb/mysql/connection-factory.hxx>` header file to make the `connection_factory` interface and these implementation classes available in your application.

The `new_connection_factory` class creates a new connection whenever one is requested. When a connection is no longer needed, it is released and closed. The `new_connection_factory` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace mysql
      {
        class new_connection_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          new_connection_factory ();
        };
    };

The `connection_pool_factory` class implements a connection pool. It has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace mysql
      {
        class connection_pool_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          connection_pool_factory (std::size_t max_connections = 0,
                                   std::size_t min_connections = 0,
                                   bool ping = true)
        };
    };

The `max_connections` argument specifies the maximum number of concurrent connections that this pool factory will maintain. Similarly, the `min_connections` argument specifies the minimum number of available connections that should be kept open. The `ping` argument specifies whether the factory should validate the connection before returning it to the caller.

Whenever a connection is requested, the pool factory first checks if there is an unused connection that can be returned. If there is none, the pool factory checks the `max_connections` value to see if a new connection can be created. If the total number of connections maintained by the pool is less than this value, then a new connection is created and returned. Otherwise, the caller is blocked until a connection becomes available.

When a connection is released, the pool factory first checks if there are blocked callers waiting for a connection. If so, then one of them is unblocked and is given the connection. Otherwise, the pool factory checks whether the total number of connections maintained by the pool is greater than the `min_connections` value. If that's the case, the connection is closed. Otherwise, the connection is added to the pool of available connections to be returned on the next request. In other words, if the number of connections maintained by the pool exceeds `min_connections` and there are no callers waiting for a new connection, then the pool will close the excess connections.

If the `max_connections` value is 0, then the pool will create a new connection whenever all of the existing connections are in use. If the `min_connections` value is 0, then the pool will never close a connection and instead maintain all the connections that were ever created.

Connection validation (the `ping` argument) is useful if your application may experience long periods of inactivity. In such cases the MySQL server may close network connections that have been inactive for too long. If during connection validation the pool factory detects that the connection has been terminated, it silently closes it and tries to find or create another connection instead.

If you pass `NULL` as the connection factory to one of the `database` constructors, then the `connection_pool_factory` instance will be created by default with the min and max connections values set to `0` and connection validation enabled. The following code fragment shows how we can pass our own connection factory instance:

    #include <odb/database.hxx>

    #include <odb/mysql/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/mysql/connection-factory.hxx>

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      auto_ptr<odb::mysql::connection_factory> f (
        new odb::mysql::connection_pool_factory (20));

      auto_ptr<odb::database> db (
        new mysql::database (argc, argv, false, 0, f));
    }

## 11.4 MySQL Exceptions

The MySQL ODB runtime library defines the following MySQL-specific exceptions:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace mysql
      {
        class database_exception: odb::database_exception
        {
        public:
          unsigned int
          error () const;

          const std::string&
          sqlstate () const;

          const std::string&
          message () const;

          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };

        class cli_exception: odb::exception
        {
        public:
          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/mysql/exceptions.hxx>` header file to make these exceptions available in your application.

The `odb::mysql::database_exception` is thrown if a MySQL database operation fails. The MySQL-specific error information is accessible via the `error()`, `sqlstate()`, and `message()` functions. All this information is also combined and returned in a human-readable form by the `what()` function.

The `odb::mysql::cli_exception` is thrown by the command line parsing constructor of the `odb::mysql::database` class if the MySQL option values are missing or invalid. The `what()` function returns a human-readable description of an error.

# 12 SQLite Database

To generate support code for the SQLite database you will need to pass the "`--database sqlite`" (or "`-d sqlite`") option to the ODB compiler. Your application will also need to link to the SQLite ODB runtime library (`libodb-sqlite`). All SQLite-specific ODB classes are defined in the `odb::sqlite` namespace.

## 12.1 SQLite Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between basic C++ value types and SQLite database types. This mapping can be customized on the per-type and per-member basis using the ODB Pragma Language (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language").

C++ Type | SQLite Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`bool` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`char` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`signed char` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned char` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`short` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned short` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`int` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned int` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`long` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`long long` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long long` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`float` | `REAL` | `NOT NULL`
`double` | `REAL` | `NOT NULL`
`std::string` | `TEXT` | `NOT NULL`

Additionally, by default, C++ enumerations are automatically mapped to the SQLite `INTEGER` type with the default `NULL` semantics being `NOT NULL`.

Note also that SQLite only operates with signed integers and the largest value that an SQLite database can store is a signed 64-bit integer. As a result, greater `unsigned long long` values will be represented in the database as negative values.

## 12.2 SQLite Database Class

The SQLite `database` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class database: public odb::database
        {
        public:
          database (const std::string& name,
                    int flags = SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (int& argc,
                    char* argv[],
                    bool erase = false,
                    int flags = SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          static void
          print_usage (std::ostream&);

        public:
          const std::string&
          name () const;

          int
          flags () const;

        public:
          transaction_impl*
          begin_immediate ();

          transaction_impl*
          begin_exclusive ();

        public:
          details::shared_ptr&lt;sqlite::connection>
          connection ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/sqlite/database.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application.

The first constructor opens the specified SQLite database. The `name` argument is the database file name to open. If this argument is empty, then a temporary, on-disk database is created. If this argument is the `:memory:` special value, then a temporary, in-memory database is created. The `flags` argument allows us to specify SQLite opening flags. For more information on the possible values, refer to the `sqlite3_open_v2` function description in the SQLite C API documentation. The following example shows how we can open the `test.db` database in the read-write mode and create it if it does not exist:

    auto_ptr<odb::database> db (
      new odb::sqlite::database (
        "test.db",
        SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE | SQLITE_OPEN_CREATE));

The second constructor extracts the database parameters from the command line. The following options are recognized:

      --database <name>
      --create
      --read-only
      --options-file <file>

By default, this constructor opens the database in the read-write mode (`SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE` flag). If the `--create` flag is specified, then the database file is created if it does not already exist (`SQLITE_OPEN_CREATE` flag). If the `--read-only` flag is specified, then the database is opened in the read-only mode (`SQLITE_OPEN_READONLY` flag instead of `SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE`). The `--options-file` option allows us to specify some or all of the database options in a file with each option appearing on a separate line followed by a space and an option value.

If the `erase` argument to this constructor is true, then the above options are removed from the `argv` array and the `argc` count is updated accordingly. This is primarily useful if your application accepts other options or arguments and you would like to get the SQLite options out of the `argv` array.

The `flags` argument has the same semantics as in the first constructor. Flags from the command line always override the corresponding values specified with this argument.

The second constructor throws the `odb::sqlite::cli_exception` exception if the SQLite option values are missing or invalid. See section Section 12.4, "SQLite Exceptions" for more information on this exception.

The static `print_usage()` function prints the list of options with short descriptions that are recognized by the second constructor.

The last argument to both constructors is a pointer to the connection factory. If we pass a non-`NULL` value, the database instance assumes ownership of the factory instance. The connection factory interface as well as the available implementations are described in the next section.

The set of accessor functions following the constructors allows us to query the parameters of the `database` instance.

The `begin_immediate()` and `begin_exclusive()` functions are the SQLite-specific extensions to the standard `odb::database::begin()` function (see Section 3.4, "Transactions"). They allow us to start an immediate (`BEGIN IMMEDIATE`) and an exclusive (`BEGIN EXCLUSIVE`) SQLite transaction, respectively. For more information on the semantics of the immediate and exclusive transactions, refer to the `BEGIN` statement description in the SQLite documentation.

The `connection()` function returns the SQLite database connection encapsulated by the `odb::sqlite::connection` class. Normally, we wouldn't call this function directly and instead let the ODB runtime manage the database connections. However, if for some reason you need to access the underlying SQLite connection handle, refer to the SQLite ODB runtime source code for the interface of the `connection` class.

## 12.3 SQLite Connection Factory

The `connection_factory` abstract class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class connection_factory
        {
        public:
          virtual void
          database (sqlite::database&) = 0;

          virtual details::shared_ptr<sqlite::connection>
          connect () = 0;
        };
      }
    }

The `database()` function is called when a connection factory is associated with a database instance. This happens in the `odb::sqlite::database` class constructors. The `connect()` function is called whenever a database connection is requested.

The three implementations of the `connection_factory` interface provided by the SQLite ODB runtime library are `single_connection_factory`, `new_connection_factory`, and `connection_pool_factory`. You will need to include the `<odb/sqlite/connection-factory.hxx>` header file to make the `connection_factory` interface and these implementation classes available in your application.

The `single_connection_factory` class creates a single connection that is shared between all the threads in an application. If the connection is currently not in use, then it is returned to the caller. Otherwise, the caller is blocked until the connection becomes available. The `single_connection_factory` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class single_connection_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          single_connection_factory ();
        };
    };

The `new_connection_factory` class creates a new connection whenever one is requested. When a connection is no longer needed, it is released and closed. The `new_connection_factory` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class new_connection_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          new_connection_factory ();
        };
    };

The `connection_pool_factory` class implements a connection pool. It has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class connection_pool_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          connection_pool_factory (std::size_t max_connections = 0,
                                   std::size_t min_connections = 0)
        };
    };

The `max_connections` argument specifies the maximum number of concurrent connections that this pool factory will maintain. Similarly, the `min_connections` argument specifies the minimum number of available connections that should be kept open.

Whenever a connection is requested, the pool factory first checks if there is an unused connection that can be returned. If there is none, the pool factory checks the `max_connections` value to see if a new connection can be created. If the total number of connections maintained by the pool is less than this value, then a new connection is created and returned. Otherwise, the caller is blocked until a connection becomes available.

When a connection is released, the pool factory first checks if there are blocked callers waiting for a connection. If so, then one of them is unblocked and is given the connection. Otherwise, the pool factory checks whether the total number of connections maintained by the pool is greater than the `min_connections` value. If that's the case, the connection is closed. Otherwise, the connection is added to the pool of available connections to be returned on the next request. In other words, if the number of connections maintained by the pool exceeds `min_connections` and there are no callers waiting for a new connection, then the pool will close the excess connections.

If the `max_connections` value is 0, then the pool will create a new connection whenever all of the existing connections are in use. If the `min_connections` value is 0, then the pool will never close a connection and instead maintain all the connections that were ever created.

By default, connections created by `new_connection_factory` and `connection_pool_factory` enable the SQLite shared cache mode and use the unlock notify functionality to aid concurrency. To disable the shared cache mode you can pass the `SQLITE_OPEN_PRIVATECACHE` flag when creating the database instance. For more information on the shared cache mode refer to the SQLite documentation.

If you pass `NULL` as the connection factory to one of the `database` constructors, then the `connection_pool_factory` instance will be created by default with the min and max connections values set to `0`. The following code fragment shows how we can pass our own connection factory instance:

    #include <odb/database.hxx>

    #include <odb/sqlite/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/sqlite/connection-factory.hxx>

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      auto_ptr<odb::sqlite::connection_factory> f (
        new odb::sqlite::connection_pool_factory (20));

      auto_ptr<odb::database> db (
        new sqlite::database (argc, argv, false, SQLITE_OPEN_READWRITE, f));
    }

## 12.4 SQLite Exceptions

The SQLite ODB runtime library defines the following SQLite-specific exceptions:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace sqlite
      {
        class database_exception: odb::database_exception
        {
        public:
          int
          error () const

          int
          extended_error () const;

          const std::string&
          message () const;

          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };

        class cli_exception: odb::exception
        {
        public:
          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/sqlite/exceptions.hxx>` header file to make these exceptions available in your application.

The `odb::sqlite::database_exception` is thrown if an SQLite database operation fails. The SQLite-specific error information is accessible via the `error()`, `extended_error()`, and `message()` functions. All this information is also combined and returned in a human-readable form by the `what()` function.

The `odb::sqlite::cli_exception` is thrown by the command line parsing constructor of the `odb::sqlite::database` class if the SQLite option values are missing or invalid. The `what()` function returns a human-readable description of an error.

## 12.5 SQLite Limitations

The following sections describe SQLite-specific limitations imposed by the current SQLite and ODB runtime versions.

### 12.5.1 Query Result Caching

SQLite ODB runtime implementation does not perform query result caching (Section 4.4, "Query Result") even when explicitly requested. The SQLite API supports interleaving execution of multiple prepared statements on a single connection. As a result, with SQLite, it is possible to have multiple uncached results and calls to other database functions do not invalidate them. The only limitation of the uncached SQLite results is the unavailability of the `result::size()` function. If you call this function on an SQLite query result, then the `odb::result_not_cached` exception (Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions") is always thrown. Future versions of the SQLite ODB runtime library may add support for result caching.

### 12.5.2 Automatic Assignment of Object Ids

Due to SQLite API limitations, every automatically assigned object id (Section 10.3.2, "`auto`") should have the `INTEGER` SQLite type. While SQLite will treat other integer type names (such as `INT`, `BIGINT`, etc.) as `INTEGER`, automatic id assignment will not work. By default, ODB maps all C++ integral types to `INTEGER`. This means that the only situation that requires consideration is the assignment of a custom database type using the `db type` pragma (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"). For example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...

      //#pragma db id auto type("INT")     // Will not work.
      //#pragma db id auto type("INTEGER") // Ok.
      #pragma db id auto                   // Ok, Mapped to INTEGER.
      unsigned int id_;
    };

### 12.5.3 Constraint Violations

Due to the granularity of the SQLite error codes, it is impossible to distinguish between the duplicate primary key and other constraint violations. As a result, when making an object persistent, The SQLite ODB runtime will translate all constraint violation errors to the `object_not_persistent` exception (Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions").

### 12.5.4 Sharing of Queries

As discussed in Section 4.3, "Executing a Query", a query instance that does not have any by-reference parameters is immutable and can be shared between multiple threads without synchronization. Currently, the SQLite ODB runtime does not support this functionality. Future versions of the library will remove this limitation.

# 13 PostgreSQL Database

To generate support code for the PostgreSQL database you will need to pass the "`--database pgsql`" (or "`-d pgsql`") option to the ODB compiler. Your application will also need to link to the PostgreSQL ODB runtime library (`libodb-pgsql`). All PostgreSQL-specific ODB classes are defined in the `odb::pgsql` namespace.

ODB utilizes prepared statements extensively. Support for prepared statements was added in PostgreSQL version 7.4 with the introduction of the messaging protocol version 3.0. For this reason, ODB supports only PostgreSQL version 7.4 and later.

## 13.1 PostgreSQL Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between basic C++ value types and PostgreSQL database types. This mapping can be customized on the per-type and per-member basis using the ODB Pragma Language (Chapter 10, "ODB Pragma Language").

C++ Type | PostgreSQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`bool` | `BOOLEAN` | `NOT NULL`
`char` | `SMALLINT` | `NOT NULL`
`signed char` | `SMALLINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned char` | `SMALLINT` | `NOT NULL`
`short` | `SMALLINT NULL` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned short` | `SMALLINT` | `NOT NULL`
`int` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned int` | `INTEGER` | `NOT NULL`
`long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`long long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`unsigned long long` | `BIGINT` | `NOT NULL`
`float` | `REAL` | `NOT NULL`
`double` | `DOUBLE PRECISION` | `NOT NULL`
`std::string` | `TEXT` | `NOT NULL`

Additionally, by default, C++ enumerations are automatically mapped to `INTEGER` with the default `NULL` semantics being `NOT NULL`.

Note also that because PostgreSQL does not support unsigned integers, the `unsigned short`, `unsigned int`, and `unsigned long long` C++ types are by default mapped to the `SMALLINT`, `INTEGER`, and `BIGINT` PostgreSQL types, respectively. The sign bit of the value stored by the database for these types will contain the most significant bit of the actual unsigned value being persisted.

## 13.2 PostgreSQL Database Class

The PostgreSQL `database` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace pgsql
      {
        class database: public odb::database
        {
        public:
          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string& password,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host = "",
                    unsigned int port = 0,
                    const std::string& extra_conninfo = "",
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& user,
                    const std::string& password,
                    const std::string& db,
                    const std::string& host = "",
                    const std::string& socket_ext = "",
                    const std::string& extra_conninfo = "",
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (const std::string& conninfo,
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          database (int& argc,
                    char* argv[],
                    bool erase = false,
                    const std::string& extra_conninfo = "",
                    std::auto_ptr<connection_factory> = 0);

          static void
          print_usage (std::ostream&);

        public:
          const std::string&
          user () const;

          const std::string&
          password () const;

          const std::string&
          db () const;

          const std::string&
          host () const;

          unsigned int
          port () const;

          const std::string&
          socket_ext () const;

          const std::string&
          extra_conninfo () const;

          const std::string&
          conninfo () const;

        public:
          details::shared_ptr<pgsql::connection>
          connection ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/pgsql/database.hxx>` header file to make this class available in your application.

The overloaded `database` constructors allow us to specify the PostgreSQL database parameters that should be used when connecting to the database. The `port` argument in the first constructor is an integer value specifying the TCP/IP port number to connect to. A zero port number indicates that the default port should be used. The `socket_ext` argument in the second constructor is a string value specifying the UNIX-domain socket file name extension.

The third constructor allows us to specify all database parameters as a single `conninfo` string. All other constructors accept additional database connection parameters as the `extra_conninfo` argument. For more information about the format of the `conninfo` string, refer to the `PQconnectdb()` function description in the PostgreSQL documentation. In the case of `extra_conninfo`, all the database parameters provided in this string will take precedence over those explicitly specified with other constructor arguments.

The last constructor extracts the database parameters from the command line. The following options are recognized:

      --user <login> | --username <login>
      --password <password>
      --database <name> | --dbname <name>
      --host <host>
      --port <integer>
      --options-file <file>

The `--options-file` option allows us to specify some or all of the database options in a file with each option appearing on a separate line followed by a space and an option value.

If the `erase` argument to this constructor is true, then the above options are removed from the `argv` array and the `argc` count is updated accordingly. This is primarily useful if your application accepts other options or arguments and you would like to get the PostgreSQL options out of the `argv` array.

This constructor throws the `odb::pgsql::cli_exception` exception if the PostgreSQL option values are missing or invalid. See section Section 13.4, "PostgreSQL Exceptions" for more information on this exception.

The static `print_usage()` function prints the list of options with short descriptions that are recognized by this constructor.

The last argument to all of the constructors is a pointer to the connection factory. If we pass a non-`NULL` value, the database instance assumes ownership of the factory instance. The connection factory interface as well as the available implementations are described in the next section.

The set of accessor functions following the constructors allows us to query the parameters of the `database` instance. Note that the `conninfo()` accessor returns a complete `conninfo` string which includes parameters that were explicitly specified with the various constructor arguments, as well as the extra parameters passed in the `extra_conninfo` argument. The `extra_conninfo()` accessor will return the `conninfo` string as passed in the `extra_conninfo` argument.

The `connection()` function returns the PostgreSQL database connection encapsulated by the `odb::pgsql::connection` class. Normally, we wouldn't call this function directly and instead let the ODB runtime manage the database connections. However, if for some reason you need to access the underlying PostgreSQL connection handle, refer to the PostgreSQL ODB runtime source code for the interface of the `connection` class.

## 13.3 PostgreSQL Connection Factory

The `connection_factory` abstract class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace pgsql
      {
        class connection_factory
        {
        public:
          virtual void
          database (pgsql::database&) = 0;

          virtual details::shared_ptr<pgsql::connection>
          connect () = 0;
        };
      }
    }

The `database()` function is called when a connection factory is associated with a database instance. This happens in the `odb::pgsql::database` class constructors. The `connect()` function is called whenever a database connection is requested.

The two implementations of the `connection_factory` interface provided by the PostgreSQL ODB runtime are `new_connection_factory` and `connection_pool_factory`. You will need to include the `<odb/pgsql/connection-factory.hxx>` header file to make the `connection_factory` interface and these implementation classes available in your application.

The `new_connection_factory` class creates a new connection whenever one is requested. When a connection is no longer needed, it is released and closed. The `new_connection_factory` class has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace pgsql
      {
        class new_connection_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          new_connection_factory ();
        };
    };

The `connection_pool_factory` class implements a connection pool. It has the following interface:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace pgsql
      {
        class connection_pool_factory: public connection_factory
        {
        public:
          connection_pool_factory (std::size_t max_connections = 0,
                                   std::size_t min_connections = 0)
        };
    };

The `max_connections` argument specifies the maximum number of concurrent connections that this pool factory will maintain. Similarly, the `min_connections` argument specifies the minimum number of available connections that should be kept open.

Whenever a connection is requested, the pool factory first checks if there is an unused connection that can be returned. If there is none, the pool factory checks the `max_connections` value to see if a new connection can be created. If the total number of connections maintained by the pool is less than this value, then a new connection is created and returned. Otherwise, the caller is blocked until a connection becomes available.

When a connection is released, the pool factory first checks if there are blocked callers waiting for a connection. If so, then one of them is unblocked and is given the connection. Otherwise, the pool factory checks whether the total number of connections maintained by the pool is greater than the `min_connections` value. If that's the case, the connection is closed. Otherwise, the connection is added to the pool of available connections to be returned on the next request. In other words, if the number of connections maintained by the pool exceeds `min_connections` and there are no callers waiting for a new connection, the pool will close the excess connections.

If the `max_connections` value is 0, then the pool will create a new connection whenever all of the existing connections are in use. If the `min_connections` value is 0, then the pool will never close a connection and instead maintain all the connections that were ever created.

If you pass `NULL` as the connection factory to one of the `database` constructors, then the `connection_pool_factory` instance will be created by default with the min and max connections values set to `0`. The following code fragment shows how we can pass our own connection factory instance:

    #include <odb/database.hxx>

    #include <odb/pgsql/database.hxx>
    #include <odb/pgsql/connection-factory.hxx>

    int
    main (int argc, char* argv[])
    {
      auto_ptr<odb::pgsql::connection_factory> f (
        new odb::pgsql::connection_pool_factory (20));

      auto_ptr<odb::database> db (
        new pgsql::database (argc, argv, false, "", f));
    }

## 13.4 PostgreSQL Exceptions

The PostgreSQL ODB runtime library defines the following PostgreSQL-specific exceptions:

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace pgsql
      {
        class database_exception: odb::database_exception
        {
        public:
          const std::string&
          message () const;

          const std::string&
          sqlstate () const;

          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };

        class cli_exception: odb::exception
        {
        public:
          virtual const char*
          what () const throw ();
        };
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/pgsql/exceptions.hxx>` header file to make these exceptions available in your application.

The `odb::pgsql::database_exception` is thrown if a PostgreSQL database operation fails. The PostgreSQL-specific error information is accessible via the `message()` and `sqlstate()` functions. All this information is also combined and returned in a human-readable form by the `what()` function.

The `odb::pgsql::cli_exception` is thrown by the command line parsing constructor of the `odb::pgsql::database` class if the PostgreSQL option values are missing or invalid. The `what()` function returns a human-readable description of an error.

## 13.5 PostgreSQL Limitations

The following sections describe PostgreSQL-specific limitations imposed by the current PostgreSQL and ODB runtime versions.

### 13.5.1 Query Result Caching

The PostgreSQL ODB runtime implementation will always return a cached query result (Section 4.4, "Query Result") even when explicitly requested not to. This is a limitation of the PostgreSQL client library (`libpq`) which does not support uncached (streaming) query results.

### 13.5.2 Foreign Key Constraints

ODB relies on the standard SQL behavior which requires that the foreign key constraints checking is deferred until the transaction is committed. Default PostgreSQL behavior is to check such constraints immediately. As a result, when used with ODB, a custom database schema that defines foreign key constraints must declare such constraints as `INITIALLY DEFERRED`, as shown in the following example. Schemas generated by the ODB compiler meet this requirement automatically.

    CREATE TABLE Employee (
      ...
      employer BIGINT REFERENCES Employer (name) INITIALLY DEFERRED);

### 13.5.3 Date-Time Format

ODB expects the PostgreSQL server to use integers as a binary format for the date-time types, which is the default for most PostgreSQL configurations. When creating a connection, ODB examines the `integer_datetimes` PostgreSQL server parameter and if it is `false`, `odb::pgsql::database_exception` is thrown. You may check the value of this parameter for your server by executing the following SQL query:

    SHOW integer_datetimes

### 13.5.4 Timezones

ODB does not currently support the PostgreSQL date-time types with timezone information.

### 13.5.5 `NUMERIC` Type Support

Support for the PostgreSQL `NUMERIC` type is limited to providing a binary buffer containing the binary representation of the value. For more information on the binary format used to store `NUMERIC` values refer to the PostgreSQL documentation.

# PART III PROFILES

Part III covers the integration of ODB with popular C++ frameworks and libraries. It consists of the following chapters.

# 14 Profiles Introduction

ODB profiles are a generic mechanism for integrating ODB with widely-used C++ frameworks and libraries. A profile provides glue code which allows you to seamlessly persist various components, such as smart pointers, containers, and value types found in these frameworks or libraries. The code necessary to implement a profile is packaged into the so called profile library. For example, the Boost profile implementation is provided by the `libodb-boost` profile library.

Besides linking the profile library to our application, it is also necessary to let the ODB compiler know which profiles we are using. This is accomplished with the `--profile` (or `-p` alias) option. For example:

    odb --profile boost ...

Some profiles, especially those covering frameworks or libraries that consist of multiple sub-libraries, provide sub-profiles that allow you to pick and choose which components you would like to use in your application. For example, the `boost` profile contains the `boost/data-time` sub-profile. If we are only interested in the `date_time` types, then we can pass `boost/data-time` instead of `boost` to the `--profile` option, for example:

    odb --profile boost/date-time ...

To summarize, you will need to perform the following steps in order to make use of a profile in your application:

1. ODB compiler: if necessary, specify the path to the profile library headers (`-I` option).
2. ODB compiler: specify the profile you would like to use with the `--profile` option.
3. C++ compiler: if necessary, specify the path to the profile library headers (normally `-I` option).
4. Linker: link the profile library to the application.

The remaining chapters in this part of the manual describe the standard profiles provided by ODB.

# 15 Boost Profile

The ODB profile implementation for Boost is provided by the `libodb-boost` library and consists of multiple sub-profiles corresponding to the individual Boost libraries. To enable all the available Boost sub-profiles, pass `boost` as the profile name to the `--profile` ODB compiler option. Alternatively, you can enable only specific sub-profiles by passing individual sub-profile names to `--profile`. The following sections in this chapter discuss each Boost sub-profile in detail. The `boost` example in the `odb-examples` package shows how to enable and use the Boost profile.

Some sub-profiles may throw exceptions to indicate error conditions, such as the inability to store a specific value in a particular database system. All such exceptions derive from the `odb::boost::exception` class which in turn derives from the root of the ODB exception hierarchy, class `odb::exception` (Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions"). The `odb::boost::exception` class is defined in the `<odb/boost/exception.hxx>` header file and has the same interface as `odb::exception`. The concrete exceptions that can be thrown by the Boost sub-profiles are described in the following sections.

## 15.1 Smart Pointers Library

The `smart-ptr` sub-profile provides persistence support for a subset of smart pointers from the Boost `smart_ptr` library. To enable only this profile, pass `boost/smart-ptr` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The currently supported smart pointers are `boost::shared_ptr` and `boost::weak_ptr`. For more information on using smart pointers with ODB refer to Section 3.2, "Object Pointers" and Chapter 6, "Relationships". The `smart-ptr` sub-profile also provides the lazy counterparts for the above pointers: `odb::boost::lazy_shared_ptr` and `odb::boost::lazy_weak_ptr`. You will need to include the `<odb/boost/lazy-ptr.hxx>` header file to make the lazy variants available in your application. For the description of the lazy pointer interface and semantics refer to Section 6.3, "Lazy Pointers". The following example shows how we can use these smart pointers to establish a relationship between persistent objects.

    class employee;

    #pragma db object
    class position
    {
      ...

      #pragma db inverse(position_)
      odb::boost::lazy_weak_ptr<employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      boost::shared_ptr<position> position_;
    };

Besides providing persistence support for the above smart pointers, the `smart-ptr` sub-profile also changes the default object pointer (Section 3.2, "Object Pointers") to `boost::shared_ptr`. In particular, this means that database functions that return dynamically allocated objects will return them as `boost::shared_ptr` pointers. To override this behavior, add the `--default-pointer` option specifying the alternative object pointer after the `--profile` option.

## 15.2 Unordered Containers Library

The `unordered` sub-profile provides persistence support for the containers from the Boost `unordered` library. To enable only this profile, pass `boost/unordered` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The supported containers are `boost::unordered_set`, `boost::unordered_map`, `boost::unordered_multiset`, and `boost::unordered_multimap`. For more information on using the set and multiset containers with ODB refer to Section 5.2, "Set and Multiset Containers". For more information on using the map and multimap containers with ODB refer to Section 5.3, "Map and Multimap Containers". The following example shows how the `unordered_set` container may be used within a persistent object.

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
      boost::unordered_set<std::string> emails_;
    };

## 15.3 Date Time Library

The `date-time` sub-profile provides persistence support for a subset of types from the Boost `date_time` library. It is further subdivided into two sub-profiles, `gregorian` and `posix_time`. The `gregorian` sub-profile provides support for types from the `boost::gregorian` namespace, while the `posix-time` sub-profile provides support for types from the `boost::posix_time` namespace. To enable the entire `date-time` sub-profile, pass `boost/date-time` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option. To enable only the `gregorian` sub-profile, pass `boost/date-time/gregorian`, and to enable only the `posix-time` sub-profile, pass `boost/date-time/posix-time`.

The only type that the `gregorian` sub-profile currently supports is `gregorian::date`. The types currently supported by the `posix-time` sub-profile are `posix_time::ptime` and `posix_time::time_duration`. The manner in which these types are persisted is database system dependent and is discussed in the sub-sections that follow. The example below shows how `gregorian::date` may be used within a persistent object.

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
      boost::gregorian::date date_of_birth_;
    };

The concrete exceptions that can be thrown by the `date-time` sub-profile implementation are presented below.

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace boost
      {
        namespace date_time
        {
          struct special_value: odb::boost::exception
          {
            virtual const char*
            what () const throw ();
          };

          struct value_out_of_range: odb::boost::exception
          {
            virtual const char*
            what () const throw ();
          };
        }
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/boost/date-time/exceptions.hxx>` header file to make these exceptions available in your application.

The `special_value` exception is thrown if an attempt is made to store a Boost date-time special value that cannot be represented in the target database. The `value_out_of_range` exception is thrown if an attempt is made to store a date-time value that is out of the target database range. The specific conditions under which these exceptions are thrown are database system dependent and are discussed in more detail in the following sub-sections.

### 15.3.1 MySQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Boost `date_time` types and the MySQL database types.

Boost `date_time` Type | MySQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`gregorian::date` | `DATE` | `NULL`
`posix_time::ptime` | `DATETIME` | `NULL`
`posix_time::time_duration` | `TIME` | `NULL`

The Boost special value `date_time::not_a_date_time` is stored as a `NULL` value in a MySQL database.

The `posix-time` sub-profile implementation also provides support for mapping `posix_time::ptime` to the `TIMESTAMP` MySQL type. However, this mapping has to be explicitly requested using the `db type` pragma (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"), as shown in the following example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
      #pragma db type("TIMESTAMP") not_null
      boost::posix_time::ptime updated_;
    };

Some valid Boost date-time values cannot be stored in a MySQL database. An attempt to persist any Boost date-time special value other than `date_time::not_a_date_time` will result in the `special_value` exception. An attempt to persist a Boost date-time value that is out of the MySQL type range will result in the `out_of_range` exception. Refer to the MySQL documentation for more information on the MySQL data type ranges.

### 15.3.2 SQLite Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Boost `date_time` types and the SQLite database types.

Boost `date_time` Type | SQLite Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`gregorian::date` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`posix_time::ptime` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`posix_time::time_duration` | `TEXT` | `NULL`

The Boost special value `date_time::not_a_date_time` is stored as a `NULL` value in an SQLite database.

The `date-time` sub-profile implementation also provides support for mapping `gregorian::date` and `posix_time::ptime` to the `INTEGER` SQLite type, with the integer value representing the UNIX time. Similarly, an alternative mapping for `posix_time::time_duration` to the `INTEGER` type represents the duration as a number of seconds. These mappings have to be explicitly requested using the `db type` pragma (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"), as shown in the following example:

    #pragma db object
    class person
    {
      ...
      #pragma db type("INTEGER")
      boost::gregorian::date born_;
    };

Some valid Boost date-time values cannot be stored in an SQLite database. An attempt to persist any Boost date-time special value other than `date_time::not_a_date_time` will result in the `special_value` exception. An attempt to persist a negative `posix_time::time_duration` value as SQLite `TEXT` will result in the `out_of_range` exception.

### 15.3.3 PostgreSQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Boost `date_time` types and the PostgreSQL database types.

Boost `date_time` Type | PostgreSQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`gregorian::date` | `DATE` | `NULL`
`posix_time::ptime` | `TIMESTAMP` | `NULL`
`posix_time::time_duration` | `TIME` | `NULL`

The Boost special value `date_time::not_a_date_time` is stored as a `NULL` value in a PostgreSQL database. `posix_time::ptime` values representing the special values `date_time::pos_infin` and `date_time::neg_infin` are stored as the special PostgreSQL TIMESTAMP values `infinity` and `-infinity`, respectively.

Some valid Boost date-time values cannot be stored in a PostgreSQL database. The PostgreSQL TIME type represents a clock time, and can therefore only store positive durations with a total length of time less than 24 hours. An attempt to persist a `posix_time::time_duration` value outside of this range will result in the `value_out_of_range` exception. An attempt to persist a `posix_time::time_duration` value representing any special value other than `date_time::not_a_date_time` will result in the `special_value` exception.

# 16 Qt Profile

The ODB profile implementation for Qt is provided by the `libodb-qt` library and consists of multiple sub-profiles corresponding to the common type groups within Qt. Currently, only types from the `QtCore` module are supported. To enable all the available Qt sub-profiles, pass `qt` as the profile name to the `--profile` ODB compiler option. Alternatively, you can enable only specific sub-profiles by passing individual sub-profile names to `--profile`. The following sections in this chapter discuss each Qt sub-profile in detail. The `qt` example in the `odb-examples` package shows how to enable and use the Qt profile.

Some sub-profiles may throw exceptions to indicate error conditions, such as the inability to store a specific value in a particular database system. All such exceptions derive from the `odb::qt::exception` class which in turn derives from the root of the ODB exception hierarchy, class `odb::exception` (Section 3.11, "ODB Exceptions"). The `odb::qt::exception` class is defined in the `<odb/qt/exception.hxx>` header file and has the same interface as `odb::exception`. The concrete exceptions that can be thrown by the Qt sub-profiles are described in the following sections.

## 16.1 Basic Types

The `basic` sub-profile provides persistence support for basic types defined by Qt. To enable only this profile, pass `qt/basic` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The currently supported basic types are `QString` and `QByteArray`. The manner in which these types are persisted is database system dependent and is discussed in the sub-sections that follow. The example below shows how `QString` may be used within a persistent object.

    #pragma db object
    class Person
    {
      ...
      QString name_;
    };

### 16.1.1 MySQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported basic Qt types and the MySQL database types.

Qt Type | MySQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QString` | `TEXT/VARCHAR(255)` | `NULL`
`QByteArray` | `BLOB` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QString` and `QByteArray` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns `true`.

Note also that the `QString` type is mapped differently depending on whether the member of this type is an object id or not. If the member is an object id, then for this member `QString` is mapped to the `VARCHAR(255)` MySQL type. Otherwise, it is mapped to `TEXT`.

### 16.1.2 SQLite Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported basic Qt types and the SQLite database types.

Qt Type | SQLite Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QString` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`QByteArray` | `BLOB` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QString` and `QByteArray` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns `true`.

### 16.1.3 PostgreSQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported basic Qt types and the PostgreSQL database types.

Qt Type | PostgreSQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QString` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`QByteArray` | `BYTEA` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QString` and `QByteArray` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns `true`.

## 16.2 Smart Pointers

The `smart-ptr` sub-profile provides persistence support the Qt smart pointers. To enable only this profile, pass `qt/smart-ptr` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The currently supported smart pointers are `QSharedPointer` and `QWeakPointer`. For more information on using smart pointers with ODB refer to Section 3.2, "Object Pointers" and Chapter 6, "Relationships". The `smart-ptr` sub-profile also provides the lazy counterparts for the above pointers: `QLazySharedPointer` and `QLazyWeakPointer`. You will need to include the `<odb/qt/lazy-ptr.hxx>` header file to make the lazy variants available in your application. For the description of the lazy pointer interface and semantics refer to Section 6.3, "Lazy Pointers". The following example shows how we can use these smart pointers to establish a relationship between persistent objects.

    class Employee;

    #pragma db object
    class Position
    {
      ...

      #pragma db inverse(position_)
      QLazyWeakPointer<Employee> employee_;
    };

    #pragma db object
    class Employee
    {
      ...

      #pragma db not_null
      QSharedPointer<Position> position_;
    };

Besides providing persistence support for the above smart pointers, the `smart-ptr` sub-profile also changes the default object pointer (Section 3.2, "Object Pointers") to `QSharedPointer`. In particular, this means that database functions that return dynamically allocated objects will return them as `QSharedPointer` pointers. To override this behavior, add the `--default-pointer` option specifying the alternative object pointer after the `--profile` option.

## 16.3 Containers Library

The `container` sub-profile provides persistence support for Qt containers. To enable only this profile, pass `qt/containers` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The currently supported ordered containers are `QVector`, `QList`, and `QLinkedList`. Supported map containers are `QMap`, `QMultiMap`, `QHash`, and `QMultiHash`. The supported set container is `QSet`. For more information on using containers with ODB refer to Chapter 5, "Containers". The following example shows how the `QSet` container may be used within a persistent object.

    #pragma db object
    class Person
    {
      ...
      QSet<QString> emails_;
    };

## 16.4 Date Time Types

The `date-time` sub-profile provides persistence support for the Qt date-time types. To enable only this profile, pass `qt/date-time` to the `--profile` ODB compiler option.

The currently supported date-time types are `QDate`, `QTime`, and `QDateTime`. The manner in which these types are persisted is database system dependent and is discussed in the sub-sections that follow. The example below shows how `QDate` may be used within a persistent object.

    #pragma db object
    class Person
    {
      ...
      QDate dateOfBirth_;
    };

The single concrete exception that can be thrown by the `date-time` sub-profile implementation is presented below.

    namespace odb
    {
      namespace qt
      {
        namespace date_time
        {
          struct value_out_of_range: odb::qt::exception
          {
            virtual const char*
            what () const throw ();
          };
        }
      }
    }

You will need to include the `<odb/qt/date-time/exceptions.hxx>` header file to make this exception available in your application.

The `value_out_of_range` exception is thrown if an attempt is made to store a date-time value that is out of the target database range. The specific conditions under which it is thrown is database system dependent and is discussed in more detail in the following sub-sections.

### 16.4.1 MySQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Qt date-time types and the MySQL database types.

Qt Date Time Type | MySQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QDate` | `DATE` | `NULL`
`QTime` | `TIME` | `NULL`
`QDateTime` | `DATETIME` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QDate`, `QTime`, and `QDateTime` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns true.

The `date-time` sub-profile implementation also provides support for mapping `QDateTime` to the `TIMESTAMP` MySQL type. However, this mapping has to be explicitly requested using the `db type` pragma (Section 10.3.3, "`type`"), as shown in the following example:

    #pragma db object
    class Person
    {
      ...
      #pragma db type("TIMESTAMP") not_null
      QDateTime updated_;
    };

Some valid Qt date-time values cannot be stored in a MySQL database. An attempt to persist a Qt date-time value that is out of the MySQL type range will result in the `out_of_range` exception. Refer to the MySQL documentation for more information on the MySQL data type ranges.

### 16.4.2 SQLite Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Qt date-time types and the SQLite database types.

Qt Date Time Type | SQLite Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QDate` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`QTime` | `TEXT` | `NULL`
`QDateTime` | `TEXT` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QDate`, `QTime`, and `QDateTime` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns true.

The `date-time` sub-profile implementation also provides support for mapping `QDate` and `QDateTime` to the SQLite `INTEGER` type, with the integer value representing the UNIX time. Similarly, an alternative mapping for `QTime` to the `INTEGER` type represents a clock time as the number of seconds since midnight. These mappings have to be explicitly requested using the `db type` pragma (Section 10.3.3,value "`type`"), as shown in the following example:

    #pragma db object
    class Person
    {
      ...
      #pragma db type("INTEGER")
      QDate born_;
    };

Some valid Qt date-time values cannot be stored in an SQLite database. An attempt to persist any Qt date-time value representing a negative UNIX time (any point in time prior to the 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UNIX time epoch) as an SQLite `INTEGER` will result in the `out_of_range` exception.

### 16.4.3 PostgreSQL Database Type Mapping

The following table summarizes the default mapping between the currently supported Qt date-time types and the PostgreSQL database types.

Qt Date Time Type | PostgreSQL Type | Default `NULL` Semantics
--- | --- | ---
`QDate` | `DATE` | `NULL`
`QTime` | `TIME` | `NULL`
`QDateTime` | `TIMESTAMP` | `NULL`

Instances of the `QDate`, `QTime`, and `QDateTime` types are stored as a NULL value if their `isNull()` member function returns true.

Some valid Qt date-time values cannot be stored in a PostgreSQL database. An attempt to persist a `QDateTime` value representing a negative UNIX time (any point in time prior to the 1970-01-01 00:00:00 UNIX time epoch) as a PostgreSQL `TIMESTAMP` will result in the `out_of_range` exception.